ft.cn:  A BATON 


.1* 


(St}ealagiryj 

PRINCETON.  N.  J. 


% 


Purchased  by  the  Mary  Cheves  Dulles  Fund. 


Division 


Section * 


DS6  19 

c..a 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/javasumatraother00caba_0 


JAVA,  SUMATRA,  AND  THE 
OTHER  ISLANDS  OF  THE 
DUTCH  EAST  INDIES 


V 


BROMO  AND  THE  SEA  OF  SAND. 


Frontispiece. 


JAVA,  SUMATRA,  AND 
THE  OTHER  ISLANDS  of 
the  DUTCH  EAST  INDIES 


/ 

<By  A.  CABATON 


TRANSLATED  AND  WITH  A 
PREFACE  BY  BERNARD  MIALL 


WITH  A MAP  AND  47  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 
LONDON  : T.  FISHER  UNWIN 


1 9 1 1 


(All  rights  reserved.) 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

Historical  Sketch  . . . . i 

I.  The  lost  continent  of  the  Pacific. — The  significance  of  coral. 

— The  old  theory  of  the  Asiatic  irruption. — The  new  theory  of 
the  Polynesian  migration. — Both  anthropology  and  philology 
unreliable. — Probable  origin  of  the  Malays. — Traces  of  their 
passage  in  India. — Two  languages. — The  Hindu  or  Buddhist 
invasion. — Adjih  Saka. — The  nomadic  legend. — Its  probable 
interpretation. — Buddhist  missions. — Immigration  in  bulk. — 
Javanese  chronicles. — Lack  of  political  cohesion. — Was  the 
Javanese  civilisation  a high  one  ? — Monuments. — The  Hindu 
dynasties.  — The  Arab  missionaries.  — Demak. — The  Arab 
warrior  priests,  and  the  fall  of  the  Hindu  Empire. — II. 
Arrival  of  the  Europeans. — The  Portuguese,  Dutch,  French, 
and  English. — III.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  and  English  rule. — 
Recent  developments. — Education  and  future  prospects. 


CHAPTER  II 


Generalities  . . . . . . 25 

I.  The  importance,  area,  and  population  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies. — II.  Administrative  divisions  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
and  the  best  method  of  studying  them. — III.  European,  and,  in 
particular,  Dutch  intervention,  in  the  East  Indies. — IV.  Physical 
characteristics  of  the  Archipelago. — V.  The  races  which  inhabit 
it. — VI.  The  principal  languages  spoken  ; and  which  must 
be  learned  by  the  European  settling  in  the  Indies. 


CHAPTER  III 

Java  and  Madura:  Physical  Geography  . . 45 

I.  Their  shape. — II.  Their  geological  constitution  and  oro- 
graphical  aspect. — III.  Streams  and  rivers  of  Java  and  Madura  ; 

vii 


CONTENTS 


viii 


PAGE 

their  qualities  as  alluvial  agents,  and  their  insufficiency  as  water- 
ways ; their  influence  upon  the  coast-line  and  the  harbours.— 

IV.  The  climate  : its  stability. — V.  The  Javanese  flora.  — VI. 

The  Javanese  fauna. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Administrative  Divisions  of  Java 

I. — The  seventeen  Residencies. — The  western  Residencies  : 
Bantam,  Batavia,  Cheribon,  the  Preangers. — II.  The  central 
Residencies : Pekalongan,  Samarang,  Banjumas,  Kedu. — III. 
Kedu  and  Boro-Budur. — IV.  The  Vorstcnland.cn  or  Princi- 
palities, Surakarta  and  Djokjakarta. — V.  Rembang,  Madiun. 
— VI.  The  Residencies  of  the  East : Surabaja,  Kediri,  Pasuruan, 
Besuki,  and  Madura. 


CHAPTER  V 


The  Natives  of  Java  . . . . . ioi 

I.  Distribution  of  the  native  element  in  Java  : the  Sundanese 
and  Madurese  compared  with  the  Javanese. — II.  The  Javanese. 

— III.  The  Javanese  house  and  village. — IV.  The  family  and 
marriage. — V.  Daily  occupations  : agricultural  labour,  hunting, 
and  fishing. — VI.  The  batik  industry : Javanese  clothing. — 

VII.  The  love  of  pleasure,  and  the  means  of  satisfying  it : betel- 
nut,  tobacco,  opium,  and  hemp  ; cock-fighting  and  gambling. — 

VIII.  Failings  with  which  Europeans  reproach  the  Javanese, 
nearly  all  of  which  have  some  historic  excuse. 


CHAPTER  VI 


The  Javanese  Mind  .....  136 

I.  The  religious  question  in  Java  is  involved  in  the  historic 
evolution  of  the  masses. — The  religion  of  Java  is  a sincere 
Islamism,  modified  by  the  survivals  of  earlier  cults  ; tolerant 
and  kindly,  like  the  character  of  the  nation. — II.  How  the 
Dutch  Indies  escaped  Christianity.  — III.  The  problem  of 
education  in  Java  ; its  various  phases  since  the  Dutch  occu- 
pation.— IV.  The  awakening  of  the  Javanese  people  and  their 
leaders ; their  claims. 


CONTENTS 


IX 


CHAPTER  VII 

PAGE 

The  Oriental  Foreign  Element  . . . 154 

I.  The  Oriental  foreign  element  in  Java  and  Madura  : the 
Japanese,  Arabs,  and  Chinese. — The  Japanese  are  the  latest 
arrivals,  and  the  least  numerous,  but  also  the  best  treated. — II. 

The  Arabs  : the  religious  and  economic  danger  represented  by 
the  Arab  element  in  the  Dutch  Indies. — III.  The  Chinese  : their 
numbers,  their  activity,  their  wealth. — Why  they  are  considered 
detrimental  to  the  political  and  economic  power  of  the  rulers, 
and  the  morality  and  prosperity  of  the  native. — IV.  The  various 
solutions  of  the  problem. — Their  injustice,  or  insufficiency,  or 
the  impossibility  of  applying  them. — The  only  remedy  is  to 
educate  the  Javanese  so  that  they  may  take  their  place  as 
loyal  collaborators  and  agents  of  the  administration  and  the 
European  industries. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


Europeans  in  Java  .....  167 

I.  The  three  aspects  of  the  European  element  in  the  Dutch 
Indies:  army,  colonisation,  bureaucracy. — The  army. — II.  The 
colonists  : foreigners,  and  why  so  few  settle  in  Java. — The 
French  colony. — III.  The  Dutch  colony. — Its  relation  with  the 
State  and  the  natives : despite  the  vast  area  of  the  plantations, 
there  are  few  private  freeholds  ; the  planter  is  the  tenant  of  the 
State  or  of  the  natives  ; sometimes  of  both  together. — IV.  His 
life  ; his  house,  furniture,  and  costume  ; his  food,  servants,  and 
amusements. — V.  The  instability  of  European  families  in  Java  ; 
why  they  do  not  settle  there  without  thought  of  return. — VI. 

The  half-breeds. 


CHAPTER  IX 

The  Administration  in  Java  ....  189 

I.  The  important  position  of  the  European  officials  in  Java. — 
Their  restricted  numbers  are  due  to  the  form  of  government 
which  obtains  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  : the  Dutch  govern  the 
natives  through  their  own  chiefs. — II.  Relations  between  the 
native  and  European  administrations. — III.  The  hierarchy, 
privileges,  and  importance  of  the  European  officials. — IV. 
Complaints  against  the  officials  made  by  colonists  and  natives. 


X 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Products  of  Java  . 

I.  The  various  phases  of  the  economic  history  of  Java  under 
Dutch  rule. — II.  The  Van  den  Bosch  or  “forced  cultivation” 
system. — III.  The  help  given  by  the  State  to  free  labour.  The 
Botanical  Institute  at  Buitenzorg. — IV.  Native  property  in  land. 
V.  Native  crops  : rice,  coco-palms,  areca-  and  betel-nuts. — VI. 
Bamboo  ; bamboo  huts. 


CHAPTER  XI 

Agriculture  : Various  Crops  . . . .219 

I.  Coffee.  — II.  Sugar-cane.  — III.  Tobacco.  — IV.  Tea.  — V. 
Quinine. — VI.  Indigo. — VII.  Lesser  crops:  pepper,  cinnamon, 
cotton,  &c. 


CHAPTER  XII 

Forests  and  Mines.  Industry.  Commerce  . . 240 

I.  The  forests  of  djati  and  of  “natural  woods.” — II.  The  mines 
of  Java;  the  mining  system;  petroleum. — III.  Salt.  — IV. 
Industries  : their  character  ; the  industrial  future  of  Java. — V. 
Institutions  of  credit  and  thrift. — VI.  Internal  trade  and  the 
means  of  transport  and  communication  : roads,  railways, 
rivers  ; steamer  services  between  the  various  islands  of  the 
Archipelago. — The  merchant  marine  of  the  Archipelago. — VII. 

Post  and  telegraphs. — VIII.  Weights  and  measures. — The 
monetary  system. — IX.  The  export  trade  ; customs  ; transport. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

The  Outer  Possessions  (Buitenbezittingen).  Sumatra 
and  the  Archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga  . . 257 

I.  The  various  divisions  of  the  “ Outer  Possessions,”  and  the 
importance  of  Sumatra. — II.  The  dimensions,  physical  aspect, 
and  coast-line  of  Sumatra.—  III.  The  rivers  and  the  sea-coast  of 
Sumatra. — IV.  The  climate,  flora,  and  fauna. — V.  The  native 
races : their  origin,  beliefs,  and  manners.— VI.  The  principal 
languages ; the  most  useful  language  for  the  visitor  to  or 
inhabitant  of  Sumatra. 


CONTENTS 


xi 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PACE 

The  Political  and  Economic  Condition  of  Sumatra 
and  the  Archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga  . . 283 

I.  The  Dutch  have  been  hampered  by  certain  European  Powers 
and  certain  of  the  races  of  Sumatra  in  their  endeavour  to 
establish  the  power  of  Holland  in  Sumatra. — II.  The  present 
administrative  divisions  of  Sumatra. — The  principal  towns  and 
their  future. — III.  Economic  value  of  Sumatra : the  wealth  of 
its  natural  resources. — IV.  How  far  the  natives  have  exploited 
the  natural  resources. — V.  How  far  the  Europeans  have  done 
so  : the  mines. — VI.  Coffee  and  tobacco  ; spices. — VII.  The 
means  of  communication  with  Sumatra : railways,  packet- 
boats. — The  means  of  communication  must  be  greatly  enlarged 
before  the  island  can  be  pacified  and  its  wealth  developed. 


CHAPTER  XV 


Borneo  .......  307 

I.  Dimensions  of  Borneo  : how  divided  among  the  Powers. — 

II.  Orography  and  hydrography.  — III.  Climate,  flora,  and 
fauna. — IV.  The  inhabitants : their  manners  and  their  civili- 
sation.— V.  The  establishment  of  Dutch  supremacy  in  Borneo. 

— VI.  Administrative  divisions  and  principal  towns. — VII.  The 
economic  situation  ; what  it  may  one  day  become. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Celebes  and  its  Dependencies  ....  323 

I.  The  situation  and  aspect  of  Celebes. — II.  The  physical 
geography  of  the  island  ; its  climate,  fauna,  and  flora. — III.  The 
inhabitants : Bugis,  Macassars,  Alfours,  Toradjas. — IV.  The 
establishment  of  the  Dutch  in  Celebes. — V.  Administrative 
divisions : i.  Residency  of  Celebes  and  dependencies ; 2. 
Residency  of  Menado. — VI.  The  economic  outlook  and  the 
future  of  Celebes. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Moluccas  and  New  Guinea  . . . 339 

I.  Physical  geography  of  the  Moluccas. — II.  Their  inhabitants. — 

III.  The  Dutch  in  the  Moluccas. — IV.  Administrative  divisions  ; 

(a)  the  Residency  of  Ternate  and  dependencies ; (6)  The 
Residency  of  Amboin. — V.  The  Residency  of  the  West  of 
New  Guinea. — VI.  The  economic  future  of  the  Moluccas. 


CONTENTS 


xii 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

PAGE 

Timor  and  its  Dependencies — Bali  and  Lombok  . 353 

I.  The  physical  aspect  of  Timor  and  the  character  of  its 
inhabitants. — II.  The  dependencies  of  Timor : Flores,  Solor, 

Alor,  Sawu,  Sumba. — III.  Administrative  divisions  of  Timor 
and  its  dependencies. — IV.  Bali  : the  island  and  its  people. — V. 
Lombok  : the  island  and  its  people. — VI.  The  establishment  of 
the  Dutch  power  in  Bali  and  Lombok ; the  administrative 
divisions,  and  the  future  of  the  Residency. 


Conclusion  ......  368 


Index 


• 372 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Bromo  and  the  Sea  of  Sand  .... 

Frontispiece 

PAGE 

A Wayside  Fountain,  Java  .... 

20 

Avenue  of  Banyans,  Buitenzorg 

38 

Temple  of  Boro  Budur  .... 

48 

Tiger-baiting,  Java  ..... 

56 

The  Kali  Mas,  Surabaja  .... 

64 

Grimm’s  Restaurant,  Surabaja 

68 

The  Old  Simpang  Club,  Surabaja  . 

68 

Native  Boats,  Willemskerke,  Surabaja 

72 

Chinese  Kampong,  Surabaja  .... 

72 

Arab  Mosque,  Surabaja  .... 

78 

Chinese  Temple,  Surabaja  .... 

78 

A Tenggri  Village,  Tosari  .... 

82 

The  Hill  Station,  Tosari  .... 

94 

The  Sanatorium,  Tosari  .... 

94 

A Javanese  Bridegroom  .... 

110 

A Javanese  Bride  ..... 

1 10 

A Gamelan,  or  Native  Orchestra  . 

127 

A "Wayang”:  Javanese  Players 

132 

A Batik  Factory  ..... 

132 

An  Arab  Trader,  Surabaja  .... 

156 

An  Arab  Trader’s  Wife  .... 

158 

A SUNDANESE  PEDDLER  SELLING  “BATAVIA  GOODS” 

158 

A Chinese  Merchant  and  Family  . 

162 

XIV 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

Chinese  New  Year’s  Festival  ....  166 

Native  Policemen  ......  166 

Chinese  Kampong,  Batavia  .....  170 

Back  of  the  Chinese  Kampong,  Batavia  . . . 170 

Sugar-cane,  Java  ......  174 

Rice  and  Coffee  Lands,  Java  ....  174 

Coffee  Plantation,  Java  . . . . .180 

Making  a Garden  in  the  Virgin  Forest,  Java  . . 180 

Native  Irrigation  Wheels  .....  220 

Native  Engineering  : A Bamboo  Cantilever  Bridge  . 220 

A Javanese  Tea  Plantation  .....  232 

Malays  of  Menangkabau,  Kota  Gedang  . . . 268 

Dwelling-house  and  Rice  Granary,  Batipu,  Sumatra  . 270 

Achinese  Boys  .......  276 

Native  Loom,  Acheen  ......  276 

A Malay  Dwelling-house,  Kota  Gedang,  Sumatra  . 288 

A Kanari  Kampong,  Solok,  Sumatra  ....  296 

Government  Official’s  House,  Borneo  . . . 308 

A Rope  Ferry,  Borneo  .....  308 

Dyaks  at  Kutjung,  Sarawak  . . . . .314 

Sumatrese  Girls  at  Work  .....  324 

Market  at  Celebes  ......  324 

“Wayang”  Actors,  Singaradja,  Bali  . . . 360 


NOTE 


The  official  Dutch  orthography,  with  one  or  two  slight 
modifications,  has  been  preserved  throughout  the  book. 
The  Dutch  oe  has  been  represented  by  u ; the  exact  sound 
inclines  to  that  of  the  German  ii  ; dj  and  tj  should  be  pro- 
nounced dchy,  tchy , but  with  a very  slight  insistence  on  the 
y ; nj  is  like  the  Spanish  «,  or  the  ni  in  onion ; g is  always 
hard.  In  the  atlases  those  names  commencing  with  tj 
which  are  most  familiar  to  the  traveller  are  spelt  commen- 
cing with  ch ; but  for  the  sake  of  uniformity  the  translator 
has,  hardly  without  exception,  kept  to  the  correct  spelling, 
only  substituting  u for  the  Dutch  oe. 

In  addition  to  the  works  cited  in  the  footnotes,  the  author’s 
principal  sources  of  reference  have  been : the  Encyclopaedic 
van  N ederlansch-Indie  . . . Samengesteld  door  P.  A.  Van  der 
Lith,  A.  J.  Spaan,  F.  Fokkens,  J.  F.  Snelleman  (Leyden, 
1896-1905, 4 vols.,  large  8vo) ; a vast  compilation  of  everything 
relating  to  the  Dutch  Indies,  of  which  the  Dutch  are  justly 
proud  ; the  masterly  work  by  P.  T.  Veth,  Java,  geographisch , 
ethnologisch,  historisch,  2nd  edition,  by  J.  F.  Snelleman  and 
J.  F.  Niermeyer  (Leyden,  1896-1907,  4 vols.,  8vo)  ; the 
sincere  and  picturesque  study  by  the  deputy  H.  van  Kol,  V it 
onze  kolonien.  Uitvoerig  reisverhaal  (Leyden,  1903,  large  8vo), 
and  a lucid,  methodical  work  by  the  same  author  on  Dutch 
and  European  colonial  systems,  the  Regeerings  Almanak  voor 
Nederlandsch-Indie  1909  (Batavia,  Landsdrukkerij,  2 vols.  8vo), 
and  the  Kolonial  verslag  van  1908.  Zitting  1908-9  (The 
Hague)  gedrukt  ver  Algemeene  Landsdrukkerij , 1909 , folio. 
In  the  maps,  Ajer,  Batang,  Kali,  Kroeeng,  Soengai,  Sungai 
= river.  Teloek,  Dano  = lake.  Noesa,  Poeloe  (Nusa,  Pulu) 
= island.  Oedjoeng,  udjung  = point.  Tandjong  = cape. 

XV 


XVI 


NOTE 


Boer,  Bur,  Boekit,  Bukit,  Dolok,  Goenoeng,  Gunung,  Tor, 
Glei  = mountain. 

The  best  atlas  of  the  Dutch  Indies  is  that  by  J.  W. 
Steemfoort  and  J.  J.  Ten  Siethoff : Atlas  der  Nederlandsche 
bezittingen  in  Oost-Indie  (The  Hague,  Smulders)  ; but  the 
Atlas  van  Nederlandsch  Oost-Indie,  by  W.  Van  Gelder 
(Groningen,  Wolters),  a convenient  and  classical  publication, 
issued  at  a moderate  price,  will  answer  all  practical  purposes. 

The  translator  has  to  thank  Mrs.  George  Watson  for  the 
use  of  a number  of  photographs  ; and  the  publisher’s  thanks 
are  due  to  M.  Cabaton  for  the  use  of  a series  of  photographs 
issued  by  the  Dutch  Colonial  Institute. 


JAVA 


CHAPTER  I 

HISTORICAL  SKETCH 
By  the  Translator 

I.  The  lost  continent  of  the  Pacific. — The  significance  of  coral. — 
The  old  theory  of  the  Asiatic  irruption. — The  new  theory  of 
the  Polynesian  migration. — Both  anthropology  and  philology 
unreliable. — Probable  origin  of  the  Malays. — Traces  of  their  pas- 
sage in  India. — Two  languages. — The  Hindu  or  Buddhist  inva- 
sion.— Adjih  Saka. — The  nomadic  legend. — Its  probable  inter- 
pretation.— Buddhist  missions. — Immigration  in  bulk. — Javanese 
chronicles. — Lack  of  political  cohesion. — Was  the  Javanese 
civilisation  a high  one  ? — Monuments. — The  Hindu  dynasties. 
— The  Arab  missionaries. — Demak. — The  Arab  warrior  priests, 
and  the  fall  of  the  Hindu  Empire. — II.  Arrival  of  the  Euro- 
peans.— The  Portuguese,  Dutch,  French,  and  English. — 
III.  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  and  English  rule. — Recent  develop- 
ments,— Education  and  future  prospects. 


I. 

A glance  at  the  map  of  the  Pacific  will  show  us  that 
the  innumerable  small  islands  lying  between  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  Australia,  and  America,  fall  roughly  into  five 
or  six  groups  : in  other  words,  they  are  the  peaks  of  as 
many  vast  ranges  of  submarine  mountains.  Each  of  these 
groups  represents  such  an  archipelago  of  small  moun- 
tainous islets  as  would  take  the  place,  let  us  say,  of  Java 
and  Sumatra,  were  a stupendous  volcanic  catastrophe 
or  a gradual  subsidence  to  sink  them  some  thousands  of 

2 i 


2 


JAVA 


feet  below  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It  is  therefore  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  they  represent  a sunken  continent, 
which  was  traversed  by  many  mountain  ranges ; or  if 
not  a continent,  several  islands  of  gigantic  area. 

That  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  were  not  thrown  up  as 
they  now  stand,  and  are  not  now  rising,  is  proved  by  the 
existence,  round  nearly  all  of  them,  of  coral  reefs  ; while 
in  many  cases  the  peak  has  disappeared  altogether,  leaving 
only  an  atoll,  or  a vast  circular  reef  of  coral.  Moreover, 
there  are  long  lines  of  such  reefs  enclosing  large  areas  of 
shallow  sea.  The  coral  polyp  cannot  live  below  a 
very  moderate  depth  of  water,  and  builds  with  extreme 
slowness  : conclusively  proving  these  islands  to  be  the 
summits  of  large  bodies  of  land,  which  have  been 
slowly  sinking  during  a period  of  incalculable  duration. 

A few  years  ago  the  theory  was  generally  accepted  that 
the  whole  of  Polynesia,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
Madagascar,  were  populated  by  a Mongolian  irruption 
from  Asia,  which  passed  from  the  Peninsula  to  Java  before 
the  Straits  existed,  and,  finally  becoming  a maritime  nation, 
spread  east  and  west  over  the  entire  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans.  This  theory  was  accepted  in  spite  of  the  very 
obvious  differences  between  the  best  type  of  Maori  and 
the  ordinary  Malay  ; between  the  coast  and  the  inland 
Malay ; between  the  black  Polynesian  and  the  fair- 
skinned Polynesian  ; and  the  distinct  cleavage  of 
languages.  The  presence  of  negroid  or  Negrito  peoples 
was  explained  by  an  immigration  from  India,  and 
perhaps  from  Africa  also. 

Lately  the  opposite  theory  has  been  favoured  : that 
the  sunken  Pacific  continent  was  the  home  of  a Pacific 
race,  perhaps  of  considerable  civilisation,  which  emi- 
grated northward  and  westward  as  the  continent  sank, 
while  also  retiring  to  the  mountains,  which  finally 
became  islands.  It  is  also  suggested  that  various  races 
of  South-Eastern  Asia  which  show  affinity  with  the 
Malays  had  the  same  origin.1 

1 Anthropologists  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  all  problems 
of  ethnology  cannot  be  settled  by  measurements  of  the  skull. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


3 


Were  either  the  Polynesian  or  the  Mongolian  theory 
true,  we  should  expect  to  find  a homogeneous  race  and 
language  from  New  Zealand  to  Madagascar.  Setting 
aside  such  minor  problems  as  certain  fair-haired  races 
who  may  represent  remnants  of  some  Celtic  movement, 
or  of  the  migration  of  Arabs  with  a Gothic  strain,  and 
black  races  who  may  be  aborigines  of  Australia,  Africa, 
or  Hindustan,  the  unprejudiced  observer  is  inclined  to 
see  two  principal  races  : a true  Polynesian  race,  of 
which  the  finest  and  most  highly  specialised  type  is  the 
Maori,  and  a true  Malay  or  Mongolian  race.  The 
Polynesian  languages  have  little  in  common  with 
Sanscrit : the  Malay  tongue  has  much  in  common  with 
it.  There  are  Malays  speaking  the  Malay  tongue  upon 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  the  natural  highway  from  Asia. 
The  true  Polynesian  is  peculiar  to  the  Pacific  ; and 
the  Polynesian  language  has  as  many  dialects  as  the 
Polynesian  skin  has  shades  of  brown.  Moreover,  the 
Malays,  although  bold  navigators,  have  not  pervaded 
the  whole  of  Polynesia,  and  their  vessels,  houses,  and 

Round-headedness  and  long-headedness,  wherever  two  races  mingle, 
are  presumably  Mendelian  characteristics,  one  of  which  is  domi- 
nant, so  that  in  the  process  of  natural  selection  we  may  reasonably 
expect  to  see  one  type  of  skull  predominate,  or  pass  from  one  race 
to  another,  which  would  preserve,  in  an  unmixed  state,  the  opposite 
type  of  skull. 

Philologists,  again,  do  not  always  remember  that  while  a con- 
quering and  civilising  race  may  either  stamp  out  or  adopt  the 
tongue  of  its  inferiors,  or  produce  a hybrid  language  as  the  result, 
it  is  also  true  that  when  a highly  organised  and  simplified  language 
with  a rich  practical  vocabulary  comes  into  even  casual  contact 
with  a lower,  and  in  some  senses  a more  complex  tongue,  devoid  of 
generalisations  and  of  qualifying  terms,  there  is  likely  to  be  an 
absorption  of  the  more  highly  organised  tongue  which  need  not  be 
accompanied  by  any  racial  admixture,  or  more  than  a slight  racial 
contact.  The  reader  must  remember  that  theories  are  changing 
every  year,  and  that  the  specialist  in  one  science  contradicts  the 
specialist  in  another.  The  present  writer,  in  attempting  to  give 
some  account  of  the  peoples  of  Indonesia,  can  but  endeavour  to 
keep  the  middle  line  and  to  avoid  improbable  extremes,  while 
adducing  certain  facts  in  support  of  the  theory  of  dual  origin. 


4 


JAVA 


art  in  general  show  more  Chinese  and  Arabian  than 
Polynesian  influence.  This  suggests  a recent  arrival ; 
while  the  varieties  of  the  Polynesian  suggest  long 
specialised  evolution. 

There  is  no  race  in  Asia  resembling  the  Polynesian 
of  the  south : whereas  there  are  races  in  South-Eastern 
Asia  having  affinities  with  the  mixed  Indonesians  and 
Malays. 

The  inhabitants  of  Java  were  called  Rasaksa  by  the 
first  Hindu  invaders.  In  many  parts  of  India,  on  the 
borders  of  the  forests,  the  natives  to  this  day  believe  in 
and  fear  a demon  known  as  the  Raksha.1  They  describe 
it  as  having  eyes  set  obliquely  in  the  head  ; it  is  ugly, 
broad,  bulky,  mis-shapen,  and  has  terrible  teeth.  It 
haunts  only  the  forest  and  the  tops  of  hills,  and  is  given 
to  decoying  children  or  solitary  women.  It  also  has  a 
terrible  cry  : an  important  point,  of  which  more  anon. 

A race  of  Mongols  or  Huns  was  for  a long  period  kept 
out  of  China  only  by  the  Great  Wall.  This  would  seem 
to  show  that  they  for  some  reason  desired  to  migrate, 
to  extend  their  nomadic  empire  ; probably  because  the 
plains  of  Asia  were  overpopulated,  for  a nomadic  people 
requires  a large  country  for  its  support. 

Now  the  Malays  themselves  had  a legend  that  they 
came  from  the  East,  crossing  to  Java  and  Sumatra  when 
the  Straits  were  solid  land.  Any  great  migration  across 
India  or  the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas  would  have 
driven  the  then  inhabitants  of  the  concealing  forests 

1 See,  for  particulars  of  this  very  significant  superstition  as  found 
among  the  eastern  hills  of  India,  “Old  Deccan  Days,  or  Hindoo 
Fairy  Legends,”  collected  by  Mary  Frere.  Her  mention  of  this 
superstition  as  existing  in  Scinde  (where  the  demon  is  known  not  as  a 
Raksha,  but  as  a Djinn)  seems  to  lend  support  to  the  legend  as  related 
by  Raffles,  to  the  effect  that  the  invading  nomads  came  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Red  Sea  (Persian  Gulf  ?).  Their  route  would 
then  lead  them  through  Baluchistan  to  Scinde,  whence  they  would 
presumably  have  crossed  India  by  keeping  to  the  hills  and  forests. 
Even  did  they  come  from  Central  Asia  (as  seems  most  probable) 
they  may  well  have  entered  India  via,  Persia,  Baluchistan,  and 
Scinde. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


5 


to  seek  safety  in  flight.  But  now  let  us  consider  the 
tail-end  of  such  a migration,  when  the  normal  population 
would  have  returned  to  their  homes.  Dangerous,  furtive 
savages  would  continue,  perhaps  for  years,  to  slink 
through  the  Himalayan  passes,  cross  India  by  means 
of  the  hills  and  forests,  and  so  make  their  way  south- 
ward. They  might  well,  being  a people  of  the  plains, 
employ  a mustering  call  or  shriek  in  the  forests,  or 
employ  a ritual  marching-cry.  They  would  not  en- 
courage stray  children  or  women.  They  disappeared 
untold  centuries  ago  ; they  are  not  met  with,  now,  as 
human  passengers  through  the  woods.  What  could 
the  Hindu  make  of  them,  when  once  they  had  passed, 
but  slant-eyed  demons  who  shrieked  in  the  woods  ? 

Again,  the  nomads  of  Central  Asia  were  horsemen. 
This  we  know  from  the  writings  of  classic  and  early 
mediaeval  writers.  But  they  could  not  ride  their  horses 
through  the  Himalayas  or  the  forests.  The  hordes 
which  invaded  Europe — Tartars,  Huns,  and  Vandals— 
were  chiefly  or  entirely  a pastoral  people.  Only  their 
custom  of  driving  with  them  the  herds  of  cattle  upon 
which  they  lived  could  give  them  the  mobility  which 
rendered  raiding  possible.  That  there  were  agricultural 
nomads  in  Central  Asia,  who  sowed  and  reaped  and 
migrated  yearly,  we  know  from  the  Vedic  writings  : the 
Aryans  who  settled  India  were  such. 

Bearing  all  these  facts  in  mind,  let  us  now  go  forward 
to  the  commencement  of  the  historical  era  in  the  Malay 
Archipelago. 

According  to  Raffles,  the  tradition  concerning  the  race 
whom  the  first  Hindus  found  established  in  Java  was  as 
follows  : they  were  nomadic,  travelling  in  hordes,  but 
they  lived  by  agriculture  and  migrated  afoot.  Only  the 
elder  of  the  tribe,  who  was  its  chief  and  high-priest,  was 
carried  with  his  family  in  a litter  or  borne  upon  an 
elephant.  The  year’s  crop  being  gathered,  the  fresh 
migration  was  directed  by  an  omen — the  flight  of  a bird. 
Apparently  the  sun  and  moon  were  worshipped  ; but  a 
certain  amount  of  general  animism  appears  to  have  pre- 


6 


JAVA 


vailed.  At  times  of  augury  or  sacrifice,  or  to  express 
homage  to  the  chief  while  travelling,  or  to  frighten  away 
wild  beasts,  the  young  men  set  up  loud  shouts  and 
screams ; “ as  do  the  Dayas  of  Borneo  to  this  day  on  like 
occasions.”  1 These  people  were  known  as  Rasaksa. 

These  Rasaksa,  or  Malays,  have  remained  almost 
unmixed  in  Sumatra,  except  upon  the  coast,  where  there 
has  been  a considerable  interfusion  of  Chinese  and  also 
of  Arab  blood.  The  civilisation  of  the  Sumatrese  is 
largely  Arab  with  traces  of  Chinese  influence ; their 
religion  was  brought  by  the  Arabs.  In  Java  there  has 
been  a very  considerable  interfusion  of  Hindu  blood, 
which  is  betrayed  by  the  darker  tint  of  the  Javanese 
natives  and  by  their  finer  features.  Animists,  or  sun- 
worshippers,  in  prehistoric  times,  they  were  rapidly  con- 
verted to  Buddhism,  which  in  time  merged  into  the 
Shivaite  cult ; and  until  the  Mahomedan  conquest  of 
Madjapahit  their  civilisation  was  of  the  Hindu  feudal 
type. 

Of  the  outlying  islands  some  are  still  Hindu  ; others 
are  largely  animistic.  The  religion  of  the  Polynesians 
may  be  roughly  described  as  a mixture  of  fetishism,  idol- 
worship,  animism,  taboo,  and  in  some  cases,  apparently, 
ritualistic  or  sacramental  cannibalism. 

We  must  remember  that  this  early  legend  may  have 
been  “ telescoped  ” by  the  Hindu  or  Javanese  historians, 
who  may  have  inserted  echoes  of  the  Vedic  hymns. 
But  regarding  it  as  authentic,  and  bearing  in  mind  all 
the  preceding  facts,  and  in  especial  the  partly  Asiatic 
character  of  the  Malay  ships  and  houses  and  the  limits 
of  Malay  colonisation,  is  not  the  conclusion  almost 
irresistible  that  a tribe  of  Mongolian  nomads,  driven 
from  Central  Asia  by  fiercer  or  more  mobile  enemies, 
or  by  some  unknown  catastrophe,  such  as  a disease,  a 

1 Raffles  states  that  the  princes  of  the  eastern  part  of  Java  used  to 
favour  a dance  performed  by  men  with  tangled  hair,  clad  in  leaves, 
who  shouted  and  leaped  and  shook  the  angklung,  a rude  instrument 
which  is  mentioned  in  the  early  legend  : these  dancers  represented 
the  supposed  aborigines. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


7 


blight,  a cattle  pest,  or  by  a prophecy  or  a superstition, 
found  their  way  across  or  around  the  Himalayas,  through 
the  forests  and  the  uplands  of  India,  down  the  Burmese 
border,  finally  reaching  the  Malay  Archipelago,  and 
perhaps  the  regions  to  the  east  thereof  ? Whether  they 
remained  there,  as  appears  probable,  until  they  learned 
navigation  from  the  settled  inhabitants  of  the  country,1 
or  whether  they  were  able  to  march  into  Java  by  land, 
is  not  a matter  of  great  importance  ; but  the  fact  that 
the  Peninsula  contains  a large  Malay  population  inferior 
in  civilisation  to  the  Malays  of  the  Indies  seems  to  favour 
the  theory  of  a temporary  halt.  Then,  it  seems,  they 
spread  through  the  Archipelago,  sometimes  exterminating 
but  more  often  absorbing  the  aborigines,  or  driving  them 
to  the  mountains ; finally  colonising  the  borders  of 
Polynesia  and  superimposing  themselves  upon  that 
• ancient  oceanic  race,  whose  peculiar  conditions  had 
perhaps  caused  a relapse  from  a higher  and  more  ancient 
continental  civilisation,  while  they  had  prevented  any 
physical  degeneration.  We  may  regard  the  true  coast 
Malay  as  the  Asiatic  nomad  with  Chinese  and  Arabian 
blood  in  his  veins,  and  the  various  peoples  of  mixed 
Malay  blood  who  are  known  as  Indonesians  as  a hybrid 
between  the  Mongolian  and  Polynesian  elements,  though 
here  and  there  the  Malays  or  Indonesians  may  have 
mingled  with  the  black  races  of  African  or  Indian  origin. 

Proceeding  now  from  tradition  to  the  chronicles,  we 
find  ourselves  in  a maze  of  contradictions,  inconsisten- 
cies, miraculous  anecdotes,  and  legends,  compiled  in  all 
probability  (since  the  adventurers  who  settled  Java  are 
not  likely  to  have  brought  court  records  with  them)  from 
the  boastful  oral  traditions  and  narratives  of  warriors, 
priests,  and  female  elders  of  the  palace.  From  these 
chronicles  it  is  not  possible  to  judge  which  princes  may 
be  supposed  to  have  reigned  in  Java  and  which  were 
actually  Indian  rulers. 

It  is  apparently  agreed,  however,  that  the  first  Hindu 

1 These  may  have  been  Chinese  or  black  aborigines  from  India  ; 
probably  both  were  present,  the  Chinese  as  maritime  settlers. 


8 


JAVA 


to  send  or  to  bring  an  expedition  to  Java  was  Adi  Saka, 
or  Adjih  Saka.  His  advent,  or  expedition,  is  by  some 
attributed  to  the  year  75  A.D.  While  he  may  have  been 
merely  a nameless  ruler  (Adi)  or  a prince  who  afterwards 
took  his  name  from  Atjeh  (Achin),  it  is  not  altogether 
improbable  that  we  have  here  a mention  of  the  great 
Buddhist  ruler  Asoka,  King  of  Behar,  who  in  244  B.C. 
commenced  that  wonderful  Buddhist  propaganda  which 
established  Buddhism  in  India  and  gave  it  a settled 
hierarchy.  His  policy,  which  resembled  that  of  the 
Jesuits  in  that  road-making  and  preaching,  well-sinking 
and  education  went  hand  in  hand,  resulted  in  a vast 
missionary  organisation  which  is  known  to  have  spread 
as  far  as  Ceylon.  His  son  carried  on  his  work.  The 
great  Buddhist  ruler  of  the  first  century  of  our  era  was 
Kunishka,  whose  name  cannot  by  any  corruption  have 
come  to  resemble  Adi  Saka.1 

When  we  remember  that  Saka  means  the  founder  of 
an  era,  therefore  a prince,  and  also  Buddha  himself,  it  is 
evident  that  the  first  chapter  of  Javanese  history  does  not 
carry  us  very  far. 

Some  chroniclers  attribute  the  introduction  of  Budd- 
hism, or  rather  of  Brahminism,  to  one  Tritestra,  a priest ; 
others  regard  him  as  identical  with  Adi  Saka.  His 
descendants  are  supposed  to  have  ruled  Java. 

It  seems  certain  that  further  Buddhist  invasions  took 
place  in  the  fifth  and  seventh  centuries.  There  are  men- 
tions of  rulers  coming  from  abroad  and  of  expeditions 
of  as  many  as  twenty  thousand  priests,  warriors,  and 
craftsmen.  For  centuries,  we  may  suppose,  Java  was 
regarded  as  an  Eldorado  where  any  refractory  vassal  or 
adventurous  refugee  or  superfluous  prince  might  win  a 
kingdom  ; standing  in  relation  to  India  as  Brazil  did  to 
Portugal. 

Powerful  states  must  have  arisen  early  in  the  history 
of  Java,  as  is  attested  by  the  remains  of  gigantic  temples, 

1 The  constant  mention  of  Asoka  as  the  great  patron  of  Buddhism 
may  have  led  remote  chroniclers  to  believe  that  he  was  alive 
centuries  after  his  death.  Adi  Saka  is  perhaps  Adi  Asoka. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


9 


primitive  in  respect  of  construction,  but  superb  in  decora- 
tion and  finish.  Whether  these  wonderful  monuments 
are  proof  of  a very  cultured  state  of  society  is  doubtful. 
There  was  more  movement  in  Asia  a thousand  years  ago 
than  now ; craftsmen  of  all  countries  may  have  been 
attracted  to  the  new,  fertile,  wealthy  land,  which  was  full 
of  royal  courts  and  powerful  feudal  chiefs.  Of  the  con- 
dition of  their  employers  we  know  little.  Hindu  art, 
however,  touched  its  zenith  in  Java,  though,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  architecture  was  primitive  in  plan,  having 
usually  an  earthen  core. 

It  is  difficult  to  judge  how  soon  Java  became,  even 
nominally,  a single  kingdom.  We  are  told,  however, 
that  in  the  year  1157  the  kingdom  of  the  second  Aji 
Saka  was  divided  into  four  kingdoms,  which  then 
became  incorporated  into  the  empire  of  Pajajaran,  which 
was  afterwards  known  as  the  empire  of  Madjapahit. 
This  lasted  from  1376  or  1396  to  1476,  when  it  fell  before 
the  assault  of  the  Mahomedans.  The  empire  being  a 
feudal  State,  there  still  remained  Hindu  kingdoms,  most 
of  which  were  rapidly  broken  up  or  converted.  The 
first  Mahomedan  State  of  Demak  became  the  empire  of 
Mataram.  Gradually  the  States  were  absorbed  by  the 
Dutch,  with  the  exception  of  the  empire,  which  was 
divided  into  the  two  Principalities  which  are  still  extant. 
But  the  feudal  framework  of  society  has  remained  and 
is  to-day  employed  as  the  means  of  government  and 
administration. 

The  fall  of  Madjapahit  is  a long  and  intricate  romance 
— too  long  for  insertion  here.  It  was  attacked  by  the 
recently  formed  Mahomedan  States  of  the  seaboard, 
which  were  largely  the  result  of  Arab  missionary  effort. 
Java  was  converted  to  Islam  almost  as  readily  as  to 
Buddhism,  the  truth  being  that  the  Javanese  is  at  heart 
an  animist.  He  utters  the  invocation  “ There  is  no  God 
but  God  and  Mahomed  is  His  prophet,”  but  he  does  so 
facing  a stone  altar  which  stands  beneath  a tree  : the 
primitive  village  altar  of  India.  To-day,  despite  Islam, 
that  stone  is  the  abode  of  the  patron  spirit  of  the  village. 


10 


JAVA 


Every  field,  every  garden,  every  hill  and  valley  has  its 
emanation,  its  spirit,  capable  of  good  or  evil,  to  be 
offended  or  propitiated  ; every  disease  its  demon.  Some 
of  the  greater  spirits,  who  are  dignified  by  names,  hold 
almost  the  position  of  demigods,  such  as  Rata  Loro 
Kedul,  the  princess  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Not  only  the 
genius  loci  is  to  be  feared,  but  every  seeming  inanimate 
object  has  its  indwelling  spirit.  The  better-class  Malays 
and  the  Javanese  nobles  are  often  reasonably  orthodox  ; 
but  the  teaching  of  Islam  has  never  disturbed  the  funda- 
mental beliefs  of  the  people.  As  in  parts  of  Italy,  the  old 
pagan  beliefs  remain  ; but  Islam  has  not  absorbed  the 
indigenous  gods  as  the  Catholic  Church  has  done.  It 
was  probably  a revulsion  against  feudal  tyranny,  a 
weariness  of  the  caste  system,  the  jealousy  of  a superior 
race,  and  a human  desire  for  loot  that  led  to  the  sudden 
conversion  of  the  Javanese  and  the  extensive  substitution 
of  the  Malay  civilisation,  partly  Arab,  partly  Chinese, 
partly  native  or  Indonesian,  for  the  rigid  rule  of  the 
Brahministic  hierarchy.  Led  by  the  genuinely  fanatical 
Arabs  and  the  jealous  Malays  of  the  coast,  the  converts 
formed  a force  which  the  less  primitive  Hindus  were 
unable  to  oppose. 

An  effort  to  convert  the  princes  of  Sunda  to  Islam  was 
made  by  the  Arab  traders  and  priests  about  1250  A.D.  It 
was  unsuccessful.  Before  this  date  a brother  of  a prince 
of  Pajajaram  returned  from  India  as  a convert,  accom- 
panied by  an  Arab,  and  attempted  to  proselytise  his 
brother.  A few  years  later  an  attempt  was  made  to 
convert  the  Rajah  of  Madjapahit,  the  Rajah  of  Cherman 
putting  forward  his  daughter  as  an  inducement.  The 
death  of  the  princess  and  her  suite  by  an  epidemic 
disease  set  a term  to  this  propaganda ; but  the  progress 
of  Islam  in  India  and  among  the  Malays  of  the  coast, 
who  were  in  constant  contact  with  Arab  traders  and 
residents,  was  rapidly  increasing. 

History  states  that  the  Rajah  of  Madjapahit  was  de- 
feated by  his  own  son  ; his  son  by  a Chinese  wife,  whom 
he  gave  to  a vassal  to  please  a later  wife.  Vassal  and 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


11 


son  were  converted  to  Islam,  and  in  the  course  of  years 
the  son  was  given  a fief,  which  he  erected  into  the  State 
of  Demak,  by  his  father,  against  whom  he  finally  headed 
a powerful  federation  of  Mahomedan  leaders,  his 
grievance  being  the  treatment  which  his  mother  had 
received.  He  was  opposed  by  his  half-brother,  the 
emperor’s  commander,  but  eventually  captured  the  city. 
During  his  adolescence  the  empire  absorbed  nearly  all 
the  islands  now  known  as  the  Outer  Possessions. 

The  destruction  of  the  great  city  was  followed  by  the 
dispersal  of  all  the  craftsmen  of  Madjapahit,  including 
the  famous  workers  in  steel.  Many  of  them  settled 
throughout  the  islands ; one  result  being  the  general 
adoption  of  the  krees.  Many  bodies  of  Hindu  wor- 
shippers fled,  refusing  to  change  their  religion,  which  is 
still  extant  in  certain  parts  of  Java  and  the  isles. 

II. 

Spices  came  from  the  unknown,  gorgeous  East : un- 
trodden, since  the  downfall  of  the  Bactrian  States,  by 
any  Europeans  but  the  Polos.  Gold  also  and  precious 
jewels,  silks,  carpets,  ivories  and  embroideries,  and 
many  another  precious  merchandise  beckoned  the 
adventurers  Eastward.  Partly  to  obtain  such  goods  at 
first  hand,  so  saving  the  enormous  cost  of  transport  by 
sea,  caravan,  and  once  more  by  water,  of  the  dues  of 
many  ports,  and  the  profits  of  many  middlemen,  and 
partly  to  make  territorial  conquest  and  to  spread  the 
Christian  faith,  the  Portuguese,  at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  when  the  power  of  feudalism  was  broken  and 
Portugal  was  full  of  landless,  masterless,  or  ambitious 
men,  began  to  search  for  the  kingdom  of  Cathay. 

Columbus,  bearing  a letter  to  the  Khan  of  Tartary, 
had  sailed  in  1492  under  the  Spanish  flag  in  search  of 
Asia  westward ; discovering  the  West  Indies.  Five 
years  later  Vasco  de  Gama  set  out  from  Lisbon,  rounded 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  reached  the  city  of  Calicut 
in  India.  The  “ Moors,”  or  Arab  traders  of  the  west, 


12 


JAVA 


were  hostile  to  his  enterprise ; but  the  Zemindar  of 
Calicut  gave  him  a letter  to  the  King  of  Portugal,  asking 
for  “gold,  silver,  and  scarlet,”  and  offering  in  return 
cinnamon,  cloves,  ginger,  pepper,  and  precious  stones. 
The  safe  return  of  da  Gama  stimulated  the  greed  of  the 
Portuguese.  The  king  commissioned  his  admirals  to 
acquire  territory  and  to  spread  the  Christian  faith. 

The  second  expedition,  of  thirteen  ships,  set  out  in  the 
winter  of  1499.  Cabral,  the  leader,  losing  his  bearings, 
discovered  the  coast  of  Brazil,  but  eventually  arrived  at 
Calicut,  founding  factories  there  and  at  Cochin. 

In  1502  Pope  Alexander  VI.  proclaimed  the  King  of 
Portugal  lord  of  the  lands  and  seas  and  commerce  of 
Africa,  Persia,  and  India.  In  that  year  da  Gama  made 
his  second  voyage,  his  fleet  numbering  twenty  vessels. 
Next  year  Alfonso  de  Albuquerque — the  only  Portuguese 
to  leave  a savoury  reputation  in  the  East — commanded 
one  of  three  fleets.  In  1505  Almeida  set  sail  with  no 
less  than  fifteen  thousand  troops.1  In  1509  Albu- 
querque succeeded  him  as  second  Viceroy  of  India. 
Failing  to  reduce  Calicut,  which  Vasco  da  Gama  had 
bombarded  in  1502,  he  fell  upon  Goa. 

Henceforth  the  admirals  had  sought  to  trade  only  with 
India.  Now,  in  1510,  Albuquerque  visited  Sumatra. 
Capturing  Malacca  in  the  following  year,  he  sent  envoys 
to  all  parts  of  the  Archipelago,  announcing  his  desire  to 
trade.  To  Java  and  the  Moluccas  he  sent  one  Antonio 
de  Abrew,  who  formally  took  possession  of  Amboin, 
opened  up  the  Molucca  trade,  and  on  returning  called 
at  many  Javanese  ports. 

Albuquerque,  after  a voyage  to  Arabia,  returned  to 
Goa,  only  to  die  there  in  1515.  He  had  won  the  friend- 
ship of  many  Hindu  princes,  and  was  so  just  a ruler 
and  a friend  that  his  tomb  was  long  venerated  both 
by  Hindus  and  Mahomedans. 

1 Most  of  these  fleets  touched  at  Bahia,  on  the  Brazilian  coast ; 
the  Brazilian  trade  was  in  fact  developed  by  the  Indian  fleets, 
while  the  possibility  of  refitting  and  provisioning  in  Brazil  and 
Madagascar  greatly  facilitated  the  Indian  trade. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


13 


The  King  of  Malacca,  who  had  been  expelled  by  the 
Portuguese,  was  cruising  vengefully,  with  piratical  in- 
tentions, in  the  Straits  of  Singapore,  so  that  vessels  sailing 
to  the  Spice  Islands  (the  Moluccas)  were  forced  to  go  by 
way  of  the  Straits  of  Baban. 

In  1522  one  de  Lerne  was  sent  to  Bantam,  which  was 
still  a Hindu  kingdom,  to  establish  commercial  relations. 
The  king  was  then  being  pressed  by  the  Mahomedans, 
and  inclined  to  make  terms  with  the  Portuguese.  He 
promised  a site  for  a factory,  freedom  of  trade,  and  an 
annual  payment  of  one  thousand  bags  of  pepper,  if  the 
Portuguese  would  build  a fort  to  defend  the  port.  In 
due  course,  permission  having  been  obtained  from  the 
King  of  Portugal,  Francisco  de  Sa  arrived  to  build 
the  desired  fort ; only  to  find  that  the  exiled  and 
Mahomedan  King  of  Malacca  had  just  seized  the 
city,  and  was  master  of  the  State.  For  the  time  being 
all  hope  of  settlement  on  Javanese  soil  was  abandoned. 

The  cruelties  of  Albuquerque's  successors  caused  the 
princes  of  Western  India  to  revolt,  in  concert  with  the 
King  of  Achin.  They  were  severely  defeated  ; nor  was 
the  King  of  Achin  more  successful  when  in  1578  he 
besieged  Malacca  ; the  tiny  Portuguese  garrison  inflicting 
upon  him  a loss  of  ten  thousand  men.  In  1615  and  in 
1628  the  Achinese  again  attacked  Malacca,  again  to  be 
repulsed. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Indian 
trade  had  assumed  immense  proportions,  and  Lisbon 
was  the  richest  port  of  Europe.  Portugal  was  empress 
of  the  seas.  As  many  as  250  vessels  would  leave  Goa  in 
a single  convoy. 

Hitherto  the  Portuguese  had  made  no  extensive  terri- 
torial conquests,  but  had  seized  and  garrisoned  many 
cities,  had  built  many  factories,  and  had  acquired  a few 
strips  of  land.  A few  of  the  smaller  islands  were  actually 
or  nominally  Portuguese,  and  commercial  treaties  were 
concluded  with  many  friendly  States.  The  number,  size, 
and  armament  of  their  vessels  enabled  them  to  beat  off 
pirates  and  to  drive  many  of  the  Malay  and  Arab  traders 


14 


JAVA 


from  the  narrow  seas  ; thus  their  monopoly  was  absolute, 
as  far  as  Europe  was  concerned,  from  Japan  to  Arabia, 
and  from  India  to  Madagascar ; while  the  Atlantic 
coasts  of  Africa  and  Brazil  were  largely  in  their  hands. 

In  1580,  however,  Dom  Sebastiao  was  killed  in  battle, 
and  Philip  II.  of  Spain  was  not  long  in  annexing 
Portugal. 

Spain  needed  all  her  money  and  all  her  men  to 
further  her  European  policy.  For  a time,  however,  the 
trade  from  Lisbon  held  its  own,  and  even  increased  ; 
but  it  was  ill-defended,  so  that  the  Dutch  and  English 
quickly  became  formidable  rivals. 

While  Lisbon  had  been  the  emporium  of  the  Eastern 
trade,  the  Dutch  ports  had  become  the  chief  distributing 
centres.  Both  Holland  and  England  were  eager  to 
break  the  monopoly  ; but  for  more  than  seventy  years 
the  Portuguese  kept  the  secret  of  the  Cape  route. 

As  early  as  1496  the  four  Cabots  had  attempted  the 
north-west  passage  ; their  voyage  ending  in  the  discovery, 
not  of  India,  but  of  Virginia.  In  1553  Willoughby 
attempted  the  north-east  passage,  but  was  frozen  in  and 
died.  Chancellor,  his  lieutenant,  found  his  way  into 
the  White  Sea,  and,  marching  south  to  Moscow,  laid  the 
foundations  of  the  Russian  Company,  which  was  formed 
to  carry  on  the  overland  trade  with  Persia  and  India. 
Other  explorers  vainly  attempted  the  Arctic  routes.  At 
length  Drake,  in  1573,  on  his  voyage  round  the  world, 
put  in  at  Ternate,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  whose  king 
agreed  to  supply  England  with  all  the  cloves  which  his 
island  yielded.  In  1579  Stephens,  an  Oxford  graduate 
and  a Jesuit,  landed  in  India  ; his  letters  home  caused 
a great  sensation  among  the  City  merchants.  In  1583 
three  English  traders  sailed  to  India  as  private  adven- 
turers. One,  after  being  imprisoned  by  the  Portuguese, 
entered  the  service  of  the  Great  Mogul ; another,  after 
travelling  through  Burmah,  Pegu,  Siam,  Ceylon,  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  returned  to  England  ; one  settled  at 
Goa  as  a trader.  In  1599  the  Dutch,  who  had  at  last 
appeared  on  the  scene,  and  had  already  gained  a footing 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


15 


in  spite  of  the  Portuguese  monopoly,  raised  the  price  of 
pepper  from  3s.  to  8s.  per  lb.  The  English  now  knew 
the  way  to  the  East,  and  promptly  formed  the  English 
East  India  Company,  in  order  to  obtain  the  spices  of 
the  East  directly.  This  Company,  absorbing  all  its  rivals, 
endured  until  1823. 

The  first  voyage  was  undertaken  in  1602  ; relations 
were  established  with  the  King  of  Achin,  the  Moluccas, 
and  Bantam,  where  a factory  was  erected.  Further 
voyages  resulted  in  extended  relations,  and  the  Company 
prospered  rapidly  ; but  in  1623,  as  a result  of  the  mas- 
sacre of  Amboin,  when  the  British  settlement  was 
destroyed  by  the  Dutch,  who  had  taken  the  island  from 
the  Portuguese  in  1605,  it  withdrew  from  most  of  its 
East  Indian  posts,  and  quickly  became  absorbed  in 
operations  on  the  mainland  of  India.  Compensation 
for  this  infamous  massacre  was  exacted  by  Cromwell 
some  thirty  years  later. 

To  return  to  the  Dutch  : the  secret  route  to  the 
Indies  being  at  last  discovered,  Cornelius  Houtman  had 
rounded  the  Cape  in  1595.  The  Portuguese  were  still 
endeavouring  to  reduce  Bantam  ; Houtman  agreed  to 
assist  them  provided  that  he  might  erect  a factory  when 
the  port  was  captured. 

The  Portuguese  fleets  and  ports  being  ill-defended  by 
Spain,  the  Dutch  became  not  merely  successful  com- 
petitors, but  seized  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  the 
East,  as  they  did  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.  Trading  com- 
panies began  to  spring  up  in  the  Netherlands  ; in  1602 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  Company  was  formed,  which 
absorbed  all  its  rivals,  as  did  the  English  Company. 
Within  a few  years  the  Dutch  were  established  on  every 
hand  : in  India,  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  Java,  the  Moluccas, 
and  elsewhere. 

Reviewing  the  century's  progress,  we  find  that  at  the 
outset  the  Company  obtained  only  sites  of  factories  and 
forts.  There  were  still  emperors  of  Java;  the  house  of 
Demak  gave  place  to  the  empire  of  Mataram,  whose 
capital,  Kartasura,  was  near  the  site  of  the  modern 


16 


JAVA 


Surakarta.  In  1610  the  first  Dutch  Governor-General 
was  appointed.  Finding  the  Dutch  position  in  Bantam 
indifferent,  he  removed  in  1618  to  Djakatra.  In  1621 
the  new  settlement  was  called  Batavia,  and  became  the 
capital  of  the  Company’s  government.  The  choice  of 
site  was  disastrous  : at  one  time  a million  Dutch  soldiers 
and  officials  perished  of  fever  within  twenty  years ; a 
fact  hardly  surprising,  since  the  town  was  built  in  the 
European  fashion  upon  the  pestilential  swamps  of  the 
coast. 

Then  followed  the  interminable  war  between  Holland 
— and  England,  which  ended  only  in  1688.  By  1683  the 
English  had  withdrawn  from  Bantam.  Peace  once 
concluded,  they  became  deeply  engaged  in  India.  The 
Portuguese  had  almost  vanished  from  the  East ; except 
in  India  the  Dutch  were  supreme.  In  1705  they 
obtained  the  Preangers  by  treaty ; in  1745  they  gained 
possession  of  the  northern  seaboard;  and  in  1755  the 
empire  of  Mataram  was  divided  into  the  states  of  Djok- 
jakarta and  Surakarta. 

The  history  of  the  Dutch  Company  is  unsavoury.  It 
was  an  armed  instrument  for  extracting  wealth  ; that  it 
might  have  a freer  hand  even  soldiers  and  minor  officials 
were  confined,  as  far  as  possible,  to  Batavia.  It  de- 
manded fixed  quantities  of  produce  or  money  from  the 
native  rulers  ; but  at  first  it  left  the  dirty  work  of  collect- 
ing such  produce  to  the  rulers  themselves,  asking  no 
inconvenient  questions.  Afterwards  it  took  hand  in  the 
work  itself  to  a limited  extent.  Even  in  the  days  of  the 
Crown  administration  this  system  was  again  put  in  force ; 
an  iniquity  (much  as  it  finally  profited  the  native  race) 
exposed  by  Douwes  Dekker  in  his  novel  Max  Havelaar, 
the  work  of  an  official  who  had  lived  his  life  as  a Dutch 
official  in  Java. 

Cruelty  and  lack  of  conscience  was  the  first  of  the 
Company’s  mistakes.  The  second  mistake  was  that  it 
based  its  expectations,  not  upon  the  general  wealth  and 
development  of  the  country,  but  simply  upon  the  mono- 
poly in  spices.  Both  monopoly  and  supremacy  were 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


17 


broken  by  Clive  in  1758,  when  he  inflicted  upon  the 
Dutch  the  ignominious  defeat  of  Chinsurah. 

When  the  Franco-English  War  of  1781  broke  out  the 
Company  was  already  failing.  In  that  same  year 
Thomas  Stamford  Raffles  was  born  at  sea,  off  the  coast 
of  Jamaica.  In  these  two  events  lay  the  seed  of  a new 
order  of  things. 

In  1780  the  States,  by  a majority  of  one,  had  decided 
to  adopt  the  policy  of  “ armed  neutrality " ; in  other 
words,  to  side  with  France  and  Russia  as  against  Eng- 
land. War  broke  out  at  once,  although  the  Stadtholder 
and  the  Court  were  opposed  to  the  popular  party.  Peace 
was  concluded  in  1783,  but  the  Dutch  were  forced  to 
admit  the  English  to  free  trade  throughout  the  Indies. 

In  1795  the  Stadtholder  fled  to  England  before  the 
forces  of  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  Batavian 
Republic  came  into  being  ; to  be  followed,  in  1806,  by 
the  Bonaparte  monarchy.  In  1810  the  honest  Louis, 
unable  to  protect  his  people  against  his  brother,  retired, 
and  Holland  became  part  of  France. 

Already  England  had  absorbed  many  of  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  the  East ; but  Java  still  remained  in  the 
grip  of  the  terrible  Daendels.  In  1811,  however,  the 
French  flag  was  run  up  at  Batavia.  In  the  same  year 
the  British  flag  replaced  it,  after  a decisive  battle  at 
Weltevreden,  delivered  by  Auchtermuty  at  the  head  of 
seven  thousand  troops.  The  remnant  of  the  colonial 
army,  led  by  the  French  General  Jumelle,  escaped  to 
Samarang,  where  it  capitulated  on  September  18th. 
Raffles  was  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  new  British 
colony,  being  subject  to  Lord  Minto,  the  Company’s 
Governor  in  India. 


III. 

Raffles  was  admitted  to  the  India  House,  as  an  extra 
clerk,  at  the  age  of  fourteen.  Ten  years  later,  thanks  to 
his  unremitting  industry,  his  supple  intelligence,  and 
the  friendship  of  the  secretary  to  the  Company,  he  was 

3 


18 


JAVA 


appointed  assistant  secretary  to  the  Governor  of  Penang, 
his  salary  being  increased  from  ^ioo  to  £1,500.  He 
married,  before  sailing,  the  widow  of  a Company  surgeon, 
learned  Malay  upon  the  voyage,  and  upon  landing  was 
already  a fair  scholar. 

A man  of  supreme  capacity  and  flexibility,  who  had 
never  mingled  in  society,  was  untouched  by  convention 
or  tradition,  and  was  therefore  able  to  reap  the  full 
advantage  of  his  unusual  good  sense ; an  ardent  patriot, 
a keen  man  of  business,  and  a far-seeing  statesman  ; he 
must,  under  ordinary  conditions,  have  eaten  his  heart  out 
among  dull  and  incompetent  colleagues  and  lamentable 
seniors.  The  fact  that  Lord  Minto  was  Governor- 
General,  while  that  erratic  genius  John  Leyden  held  a 
post  of  influence,  enabled  him  to  do  lasting  and  im- 
perial work,  though  the  tentacles  of  mediocrity  dragged 
him  down  in  the  end. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  consider  his  work  for  England; 
we  must  consider  his  career  in  respect  of  Java  only: 
Java,  which  he  always  maintained  should  be  retained  by 
England  as  a jewel  in  her  crown  of  empire.  It  is  enough 
to  say  that  after  doing  most  valuable  work  in  spite  of 
dull  or  timid  superiors  and  disloyal  colleagues,  he  was 
appointed  by  Lord  Minto  to  be  Agent  with  the  Malay 
States  and  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Java. 

Daendels,  a pitiless  Jacobin,  sent  out  to  Java  to  re- 
organise the  colonial  forces,  had  utterly  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  country.  His  legacy  to  England  con- 
sisted of  a military  road  built  at  the  cost  of  countless 
lives,  and  a bankrupt  and  terrorised  people. 

Raffles  was  actuated  by  the  feeling  that  it  was  the  plain 
duty  of  England  to  give  this  people  a just,  humane,  and 
suitable  government ; to  restore  it  to  wealth  ; and  finally, 
to  make  it  a source  of  imperial  strength  and  profit.  He 
considered  that  retirement  on  the  part  of  his  country 
would  be  a betrayal,  a cruel  desertion. 

He  immediately  gained  the  confidence  and  gratitude  of 
the  Dutch  population.  The  Sultan  and  Susuhunan  were 
restive,  seeing  an  opportunity  of  revolt : Raffles  handled 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


19 


them  with  consummate  skill,  promising  both  protection. 
Minto  had  already  abolished  torture  : Raffles  revolution- 
ised the  entire  legal  system.  The  original  system  of 
village  or  communal  government  was  revived  ; the  island 
was  ruled  through  its  natural  hierarchy,  the  native  aris- 
tocracy, advised  by  European  colleagues.  The  country 
was  redivided.  The  old  forced  deliveries  of  crops,  by 
which  the  Company  had  lived,  were  abolished. 

Raffles  then  proceeded  to  reform  the  land  tenure.  The 
Dutch  had  forced  the  natives  to  deliver  all  their  crops, 
had  bought  them  for  a song,  and  resold  what  the 
natives  actually  required  for  subsistence  at  iniquitously 
high  prices.  Daendels  had  salaried  the  receiving  officials, 
who  had  previously  lived  by  percentage  and  peculation, 
but  had  left  the  system  untouched. 

After  a long  and  exhaustive  tour  of  inquiry,  and 
innumerable  interviews  with  natives  of  every  rank, 
Raffles  decided  to  let  the  land  to  the  natives  upon  long 
leases,  abolishing  forced  deliveries.  At  the  outset  the 
village  headman  let  the  land  ; but  this  arrangement  was 
provisional,  the  tenant  at  last  holding  his  land  by  lease 
directly  from  the  Government.  The  rent  was  paid  in 
kind,  but  was  fixed  ; it  was  collected,  under  supervision, 
by  the  chief,  or  headman.  This  revolution  destroyed  the 
evils  of  the  feudal  system  ; the  former  regents  were 
granted  pensions  and  estates  in  compensation,  and  in 
return  for  administrative  duties. 

Within  two  years  of  the  introduction  of  the  new 
system  the  land  rental  yielded  nearly  half  the  revenue  of 
Java.  Unfortunately  the  enforced  use  of  paper  money 
resulted  in  an  exchange  rate  of  twelve  to  thirteen.  This 
condition  of  affairs  was  largely  due  to  Daendels.  To 
remedy  or  at  least  to  alleviate  this  depreciation  Raffles 
decided  to  sell  a portion  of  the  public  domain:  a measure 
for  which  he  was  savagely  criticised,  but  which  none  the 
less  did  much  to  increase  the  exploitation  of  the  soil. 
As  a result  of  jealousy  and  the  hasty  charges  of  a former 
friend,  Raffles  was  requested  in  1815  to  withdraw  from 
his  position  in  Java  ; a piece  of  injustice  which  was  felt 


20 


JAVA 


the  more  bitterly  because  his  work  had  not  as  yet  been 
given  time  to  justify  itself  by  results.  It  was  stated,  as  a 
complaint,  that  at  the  end  of  four  years  of  administration 
his  budget  showed  a deficit.  That  is  true  ; but  it  is  also 
true  that  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  these  were  years  of 
revolution  and  reconstruction  the  deficit  was  less  than  it 
had  been  for  more  than  twelve  years  ; moreover,  it  was 
less  each  year,  and  had  the  rate  of  decrease  continued 
constant  (but  it  would  undoubtedly  have  improved)  two 
years  longer  would  have  shown  a surplus,  after  which  the 
island  would  have  been  not  merely  self-supporting  but 
an  asset  of  imperial  wealth. 

Already  it  had  been  decided  that  Java  was  to  be  re- 
turned to  Holland.  Raffles  was  appointed  Resident  in 
Bencoolen,  Sumatra  ; but  almost  at  the  moment  of  his 
retirement  a curious  conspiracy  was  unmasked  at  the 
court  of  the  Susuhunan.  This  monarch,  at  whose  court 
was  a guard  of  sepoys,  had  attended  their  Hindu  services, 
and  had  given  them,  for  purposes  of  worship,  some 
antique  Hindu  idols  preserved  in  the  palace.  The 
sepoys  thereupon  sought  to  persuade  themselves  and  him 
that  he  was  a descendent  of  Ra,  destined  by  the  gods  to 
restore  the  Hindu  empire.  Had  he  declared  himself  his 
people  would  probably  have  followed,  and  a terrible 
upheaval  might  have  convulsed  the  islands.  Raffles 
quickly  subdued  the  rising,  without  severity  and  without 
a display  of  force. 

Java  was  actually  taken  over  by  the  Government  of 
Holland  in  1818.  The  Dutch  had  the  wisdom  to 
recognise  the  excellence  of  Raffles’  work,  and  continued 
to  govern  according  to  the  system  he  had  created. 

Of  the  return  to  the  bad  old  methods  known  as  the 
“ system  of  forced  cultures  ” there  is  only  one  good  word 
to  say.  It  resulted  in  the  reclamation  of  yet  more  virgin 
soil ; so  that  the  effect  of  this  system,  together  with  the 
reforms  instituted  by  Raffles,  was  an  increase  in  the 
population  from  4,500,000  to  30,000,000  in  less  than  a 
century. 

The  last  serious  hostilities  in  Java  broke  out  in  1825, 


A WAYSIDE  FOUNTAIN,  JAVA. 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


21 


when  Dipo  Negoro  claimed  the  entire  island.  The 
rebellion  was  subdued  at  the  cost  of  five  years  of  warfare 
and  the  loss  of  fifteen  thousand  men.  When  at  length  the 
island  was  pacified  the  hold  of  the  Dutch  was  firmer  than 
ever.  There  were  further  attempts  at  revolt,  when  the 
Mahomedan  priests  sought  to  persuade  the  people  that 
Dipo  Negoro  had  returned,  or  was  still  alive.  The  most 
serious  attempt  was  in  1849,  when  the  exile  was  in 
Macassar.  He  died  in  1855,  and  the  last  rebellion  was 
in  1888.  These  revolts  have  resulted  in  the  entire  loss 
of  local  independence.  In  1848  sweeping  reforms  were 
introduced  by  the  Grondwet,  or  Fundamental  Law  ; and 
during  the  last  sixty  years  the  Government  has  grown 
more  and  more  paternal,  humane,  and  enlightened,  until 
it  is  now  an  example  to  other  nations.  The  increasing 
immigration  of  private  colonists  has  had  an  excellent 
effect,  and  has  fulfilled  the  colony’s  natural  destiny. 

Hostilities  still  continue  in  Sumatra,  in  the  jungles  of 
Achin,  but  only  on  a small  scale,  as  all  the  towns  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  Dutch.  This  Achinese  War  has  been 
well-nigh  interminable,  and  the  cost  in  lives  and  money 
has  been  deplorable.  The  pacification  of  the  country  is 
at  last  at  hand. 

The  chief  problem  of  the  present  day  is  that  of  native 
education.  Until  recently  a knowledge  of  Dutch  or  of 
Occidental  learning  was  denied  to  the  Javanese,  lest  they 
should  consider  themselves  the  equals  or  superiors  of 
their  masters.  We  may  suppose  the  Dutch  to  have  taken 
warning  by  the  results  of  education  in  other  parts  of  the 
East. 

But  the  Javanese  (the  Malay  is  a poor  scholar)  is  eager 
for  Western  learning ; yet  not  so  much  for  its  own  sake 
as  for  what  he  hopes  it  will  give  him  : power,  con- 
sideration, social  promotion,  a career,  and  ultimately, 
perhaps,  national  self-government  as  a federated  colony. 
He  has  seen  the  Japanese  change  from  a secluded  feudal 
people  to  a civilised  power  in  the  space  of  forty  years, 
and  forgets  that  even  in  their  seclusion  (which  was  a 
comparatively  recent  matter)  they  were,  as  they  had  been 


22 


JAVA 


for  centuries,  a powerful  and  highly  civilised  nation  under 
a stable  government. 

Java  has  always  been  a congeries  of  little  states  ; some- 
times temporarily  federated,  sometimes  hostile ; unaf- 
fected by  caste,  but  aristocratic  by  principle.  It  is,  and 
will  always  be,  a land  of  agricultural  wealth.  Owing 
to  the  docile  nature  of  the  people,  the  prevalence  of 
agriculture,  and  the  aristocratic  framework  of  society, 
there  is  no  need  in  Java  for  an  enormous  bureaucracy. 
Yet  that,  one  may  suppose,  is  what  its  youth  would 
expect  if  educated  in  the  rash  yet  timid  manner  usual  in 
the  East.  In  India  university  graduates,  instructed 
rather  than  educated,  crammed  with  traditional  facts, 
but  unable  to  handle  new  ones,  or  to  co-ordinate  or 
deduct,  are  forced  to  work  at  the  loom  for  a living. 
What  work  could  be  found  for  the  Javanese  youth  if 
similarly  trained  ? The  number  of  Dutch  officials  is 
already  small,  and  cannot  be  decreased  with  profit  to  rulers 
or  to  ruled.  There  is  no  room  and  no  occasion  for  any 
large  degree  of  further  self-government ; and  at  present  the 
Javanese,  not  being  fanatical  Mahomedans,  and  having 
no  system  of  caste,  trust  and  respect  the  Europeans. 
The  problem  of  general  education  has  accordingly  hung 
fire  ; although  the  sons  or  successors  of  regents  have  for 
some  time  received  adequate  instruction  of  a suitable 
type. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  situation  will  find  a natural 
solution.  The  Javanese  will  probably  perceive  that  his 
future  lies  in  the  exploitation  of  the  soil.  If  he  desires 
to  live  as  the  Europeans  do,  to  meet  them  on  reasonably 
equal  terms,  and  to  assume  identical  interests,  he  has  but 
to  cultivate  the  land  as  do  the  planters,  or  to  enter  upon 
the  upper  walks  of  commerce,  where  a special  education 
might  enable  him  to  oust  the  Chinaman. 

The  Javanese  as  things  are  has  to  learn  three  tongues — 
the  High  and  the  Low  Javanese,  and  Malay;  literary  Malay 
may  make  a fourth.  If  he  learn  Dutch  as  well,  a limit 
is  set  at  once  to  what  else  he  can  learn  in  a curriculum 
of  ordinary  duration.  Agriculture  he  must  study,  with 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


23 


its  underlying  sciences.  If,  as  is  probable,  his  education 
finally  assumes  this  form,  he  will  hardly  be  able  to  learn 
alien  philosophies  and  political  theories  which  are  only 
likely  to  be  harmful  to  an  ordinary  Oriental,  unless  he  be 
of  exceptional  intelligence  and  have  leisure  to  travel  in 
the  West.  A practical  scientific  training,  moreover, 
seldom  fails  to  teach  the  recipient  that  system  of 
method,  that  power  of  co-ordination  and  constructive 
thought,  which  are  usually  so  dismally  lacking  in  the 
modernised  Oriental. 

The  East  Indies  stand  to-day,  like  Brazil,  on  the  edge 
of  a new  era.  They  form  a land  of  plenty,  but  their  full 
development  is  a matter  of  the  future.  In  that  future  the 
natives,  if  only  because  of  the  rate  at  which  they  increase, 
must  play  an  ever-increasing  part ; the  Malay  more 
especially  as  sailor,  fisherman,  plantation-hand,  labourer  ; 
the  Javanese  as  planter,  cultivator,  and  artisan.  At 
present  the  native  aristocracy,  who  used  to  rule  as  feudal 
chiefs,  and  now  rule  for  and  with  the  Dutch,  are  paid 
heavy  salaries  and  own  large  estates.  As  all  their 
descendants  cannot  become  regents  or  bureaucrats,  it  is 
obviously  in  their  interest  to  learn  the  management  of 
estates,  with  all  that  is  thereby  entailed.  As  the  Outer 
Possessions  become  more  fully  developed  and  settled 
there  may  be  a limited  official  scope  for  the  youth  of 
Java  ; but  only,  as  a general  thing,  where  the  local  rulers 
are  inefficient.  A time  must  come  when  the  soil  of  the 
Indies  will  present  itself  to  the  native,  as  to  the  colonist, 
as  the  natural  source  of  wealth  ; and  in  Sumatra  the  coal 
measures  point  to  the  probability  of  future  industrial 
development.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  course  of  time 
the  professions  of  agriculture  and  industry  will  afford 
the  upper-class  native  competence  and  an  honourable 
calling.  If  there  are  prejudices  to  be  overcome,  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  a wise  education  will  naturally  break  them 
down.  The  nationalist  cry  is  only  dangerous  when  it  is 
a demand  that  a helpless  and  ignorant  people  shall  be 
handed  over  to  a horde  of  semi-Westernised  lawyers, 
agitators,  bureaucrats,  and  contractors.  It  is  to  be 


24 


JAVA 


hoped  that  the  Indies  have  once  and  for  all  passed  the 
period  of  spoliation  ; and  there  is  every  indication  that 
the  wise  and  paternal  rule  of  the  Dutch,  and  the  lack  of 
enormous  urban  populations,  will  for  ever  be  a safeguard 
against  the  poisonous  growth  of  a spurious  nationalism. 
But  we  cannot  be  surprised  if  the  Dutch,  with  India  and 
Egypt  before  their  eyes,  prefer  to  proceed  with  the  utmost 
caution. 


BERNARDi  MIALL. 


CHAPTER  II 


GENERALITIES 

I.  The  importance,  area,  and  population  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. — 
II.  Administrative  divisions  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  the 
best  method  of  studying  them. — III.  European,  and,  in  parti- 
cular, Dutch  intervention,  in  the  East  Indies. — IV.  Physical 
characteristics  of  the  Archipelago. — V.  The  races  which  inhabit 
them. — VI.  The  principal  languages  spoken  ; and  which  must 
be  learned  by  the  European  settling  in  the  Indies. 


I. 

The  Dutch  East  Indies  are  well  worth  knowing ; they 
are  favoured  by  nature  above  most  other  lands  ; their 
present  rulers  afford  a rare  example  of  a political 
intelligence  which  is  equally  tenacious  and  sagacious, 
and  their  system  of  administration  is  full  of  valuable 
lessons  for  the  other  Colonial  Powers  of  Europe. 

The  kingdom  of  Holland,  or  the  Netherlands,  has  an 
area  of  12,700  square  miles,  and  a population  of  about 
5,000,000.  Her  Asiatic  possessions,  which  lie  between 
950  and  1410  east  longitude,  and  6°  north  and  n°  south 
latitude,  are  known  as  the  Dutch  East  Indies  ( Neder - 
landsch-Oost-Indie  in  Dutch,  or  simply  N ederlandsch- 
Indie — Dutch  India).  These  vast  colonies  are  washed 
on  the  east  by  the  great  Pacific  Ocean  ; on  the  north 
by  the  China  Sea ; on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Indian 
Ocean.1 

1 The  groups  of  islands,  great  or  small,  which  lie  between  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  Asia  and  the  north-western  portion  of 
Australia,  and  of  which  the  Dutch  East  Indies  form  a part,  are 

25 


26 


JAVA 


These  possessions,  known  sometimes  as  the  Indian 
or  Malayan  Archipelago,  but  more  commonly  as  the 
East  Indies,  comprise  an  approximate  area  of  698,000 
square  miles  ; or  fifty-eight  times  the  area  of  Holland, 
and  nearly  three  and  a half  times  that  of  France.  Their 
population  is  estimated  at  37,402,500  inhabitants,  or 
seven  times  that  of  Holland.1 

These  figures  have  no  absolute  value,  however  carefully 
they  may  have  been  determined.  The  very  immensity 
of  the  colonial  domain,  the  scattered  positions  of  its 
various  members,  obstacles  of  a geographical  nature,  and 
the  hostility  of  certain  indigenous  tribes  in  some  of  the 
islands,  have  necessarily  resulted  in  the  incomplete  or 
superficial  exploration  of  many  regions.  Particularly  is 
this  the  case  with  the  great  island  of  Borneo,  of  which 
the  Dutch  portion  alone  has  an  estimated  area  of  212,600 
square  miles,  or  seventeen  times  that  of  Holland.  A 
more  detailed  and  more  scientific  examination  of  the 
country  during  the  last  twenty  years  has  revealed  it  in 
quite  a new  light.  The  area  of  Sumatra,  which  is  nearly 
as  large  as  Borneo,  and  far  more  intimately  known,  is 
still  estimated  by  some  travellers  at  179,880  square  miles, 
and  by  others  at  167,470. 

We  must  not  look  for  rigorous  exactitude  in  the  figures 
relating  to  the  population  ; once  more,  such  figures  have 
only  an  approximate  value.  We  can  imagine  the  diffi- 
culty, the  impossibility  even,  of  effecting  a methodical 
census  of  these  enormous  tracts  of  land,  which  are  but 

usually  known  in  Holland  as  the  Indian  Archipelago  ; in  England, 
as  the  Malay  Archipelago.  In  Germany  also  they  are  known  as  the 
Malay  Archipelago  (Malayische  Archipel ) ; or,  following  the  example 
of  Bastian,  as  Indonesia,  the  “ Isles  of  India.”  In  France  they  are 
known  as  the  Asiatic  Archipelago  ( Archipel  Asiatique),  and  Elisee 
Reclus  has  introduced  the  graceful  title  of  Insulinde,  employed  for 
the  first  time  in  the  romance  Max  Havelaar,  by  Multatuli  (E.  Douwes 
Dekker),  the  famous  Dutch  author.  See  Blink,  Nederlandsch  Oost- 
en  West-Indie,  p.  19. 

1 30,098,000  for  Java  and  Madura  and  7,304,500  for  the  other 
Dutch  possessions.  See  Regeerings  Almanak  voor  Nederlandsch 
Indie,  1909,  pp.  4-5  ; census  of  Dec.  31,  1905. 


GENERALITIES 


27 


imperfectly  known,  and  are  often  inhabited  by  peoples 
whose  submission  to  Holland  is  purely  official.  The 
chief  pitfall  in  such  cases  is  the  tendency  to  deduce  the 
number  of  inhabitants  from  the  area  of  the  territory ; an 
error  which  the  former  explorers  were,  as  a rule,  only  too 
ready  to  commit.  Later,  by  a sort  of  reaction,  the  density 
of  the  population  was  estimated  at  a figure  far  below  the 
reality.  The  census,  in  short,  is  accurate  only  in  the 
case  of  Java;  the  first  island  of  the  Archipelago  to  achieve 
civilisation,  as  it  remains  the  most  civilised  to-day,  as  well 
as  the  richest  and  the  most  densely  peopled.  In  Java, 
moreover,  the  Dutch  domination  is  accepted  without 
protest.  Java,  with  its  neighbour  Madura,  has  an  area 
of  50,600  square  miles,  and  a population  of  30,098,000  ; 
that  is,  it  contains  four-fifths  of  the  total  population  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies. 


II. 

On  account  of  the  various  inequalities  between  the 
different  portions  of  their  colonial  empire — inequalities 
of  area,  population,  and  value,  both  intellectual  and 
economic,  as  well  as  inequalities  of  civilisation — the 
Dutch  have  divided  their  East  Indian  possessions,  from 
the  administrative  point  of  view,  into  two  large  depart- 
ments. The  first  includes  Java  and  Madura  ; the  second 
the  Outer  Possessions,  as  they  are  called  ( Buitenbezit - 
tingeri),  with  Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  the  other  islands  ; 
a division  far  superior  to  Java  in  the  matter  of  area, 
but  inferior  in  population  and  also  in  natural  wealth, 
which  is  often  considerable,  but  as  yet  is  hardly  known 
or  badly  exploited. 

In  a book  whose  object  is  not  only  to  describe  the 
Dutch  Indies  from  the  physical  and  political  point  of 
view,  but  also  to  prove  their  economic  importance,  it 
will  therefore  be  best,  at  the  cost  of  a few  repetitions,  to 
study  each  of  these  two  departments  separately,  lest  we 
arrive  at  erroneous  generalities. 


28 


JAVA 


III. 

The  conquest  of  so  great  an  empire,  and  its  continued 
possession  for  a space  of  nearly  four  centuries,  is  a proof 
of  the  admirable  racial  qualities  of  the  Dutch  ; qualities 
which  owe  something,  perhaps,  to  good  fortune.  When, 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  they  came  into  contact  with 
Europe,  the  populations  of  the  East  Indies  had  already 
been  subjected  to  the  influence  of  two  great  civilisations: 
that  of  the  Hindus  and  that  of  the  Arabs. 

The  Hindus,  about  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  being  doubtless  driven  from  their  country  by  reli- 
gious persecution,  brought  to  Java  and  Sumatra  their  arts, 
their  beliefs,  and  their  social  organisation  : all  greatly 
superior  to  those  which  they  found  in  the  islands.  They 
founded  several  powerful  States  : Menangkabau  and 
Palembang  in  Sumatra,  and  Madjapahit  in  Java.  First 
Brahmanism,  and  between  the  fifth  and  the  sixth  century 
Buddhism,  flourished  with  a vigour  which  is  still  attested 
by  the  wonderful  ruins  of  Prambanan  and  Boro-Budur. 
Towards  the  thirteenth  century  (but  this  date  is  still 
uncertain)  these  faiths  were  replaced  by  Islam  ; brought 
first  of  all  by  Arab  and  Persian  merchants  to  the  eastern 
coast  of  Sumatra,  and  thereafter  overrunning  the  whole 
Malay  Peninsula  and  the  entire  Malayan  Archipelago, 
either  by  means  of  pacific  proselytism  or  through  the 
warlike  fervour  of  the  early  Mahomedan  states.  To  this 
day  five-sixths  of  the  population  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  profess  the  faith  of  Islam,  in  name  if  not  always 
in  fact. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  Europeans,  known  hitherto 
only  in  the  shape  of  the  Venetians,  to  whom  the  Arabs 
and  Persians  transmitted  the  precious  spices  which  were 
grown  in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  came  at  last  as  a con- 
quering power.  First  of  all  came  the  Portuguese,  who, 
in  1511,  took  possession  of  Malacca,  whence  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  Celebes  ; and  then 
to  the  Moluccas,  upon  which  they  imposed  their  suze- 
rainty, with  an  eye  especially  to  monopolising  their 


GENERALITIES 


29 


trade.  The  Spaniards  had  a footing  in  the  Philippines 
from  1520  onwards.  In  1580  the  union  under  Philip  II. 
of  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  Portugal  resulted  in  the 
possession  by  Spain  of  all  the  Portuguese  colonies  in 
India  and  the  Indies. 

The  first  act  of  Philip,  once  master  of  Lisbon,  was  to 
forbid  that  port  to  the  Dutch,  his  sometime  subjects, 
who  had  revolted  in  1572.  The  Dutch,  the  “ waggoners 
of  the  sea,”  at  this  period  depended  absolutely  upon 
Lisbon,  whence  they  carried  the  spices  of  the  Indies  to 
all  parts  of  Europe.  Stifled  in  their  growing  commercial 
power,  they  were  condemned  by  this  very  fact  either  to 
disappear  from  the  seas  or  to  go  themselves  in  search  of 
the  wealth  of  the  Indies.  But  the  two  Iberian  nations, 
who  alone  possessed  the  secret  of  the  route,1  guarded  it 
with  jealous  care.  The  extremest  penalties,  even  that  of 
death,  were  decreed  against  those  who  should  betray  the 
secret.  The  Dutch  resolved  to  solve  it  despite  all 
obstacles.  Two  expeditions,  which  sought  the  Indies 
by  way  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  came  to  a disastrous 
end,  which,  in  after  years,  was  apotheosised  in  poetry  ; 
but  at  length  Cornelius  Houtman  of  Gonda,  who  was 
trading  secretly  in  Lisbon,  succeeded  while  there  in 
obtaining  valuable  information.  Thrown  into  prison  as 
the  penalty,  he  succeeded  in  sending  to  Amsterdam  the 
news  of  his  discovery  and  his  hopes,  and  of  the  heavy 
ransom  which  alone  could  set  him  free.  The  Dutch 
merchants  immediately  clubbed  together  to  deliver  him, 
and,  in  possession  of  his  secret,  founded,  with  him  and 
his  brother,  a commercial  undertaking  known  as  the 
Company  of  Distant  Countries  ( Compagnie  van  verre) ; 
a title  as  vague  and  as  splendid  as  their  hopes.  An 
expedition  left  the  Texel  in  1595,  consisting  of  four 
vessels  and  250  well-armed  men,  including  Jan  Molenaer 

1 Portugal  discovered  the  route  by  rounding  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope ; Spain  by  threading  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  charts 
showing  the  route  were  given  each  voyage  to  the  captain  of  the 
vessel,  and  were  taken  from  him  upon  his  return,  and  had  to  be  kept 
secret  from  every  eye  but  his. 


30 


JAVA 


and  C.  and  F.  Houtman.  It  recruited  off  Madagascar,1 
and  in  1596  landed  first  in  Sumatra,  and  then  at  Bantan  2 3 — 
the  Bantam  of  the  ancient  Dutch  and  Portuguese  traders. 

From  that  time  forward  expeditions  from  Holland 
succeeded  one  another  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  with  a 
tenacity  equal  to  their  boldness ; and  Batavia,  which 
was  formerly  known  as  Jakatra  or  Djakatra,  was  founded 
in  1619.  Shortly  afterwards  Holland  took  advantage  of 
the  insufficient  defence  on  the  part  of  Spain  of  the  former 
Portuguese  colonies,  and  of  the  violent  rupture  between 
the  two  countries  in  1660,  by  appropriating  the  Portu- 
guese possessions  which  were  no  longer  properly 
defended ; and  this  in  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America  as  well  as  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  the 
Archipelago.  Her  progress  was  arrested  only  by  the 
competition  of  England,  a far  more  powerful  rival. 
During  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century  England 
was  disputing  these  vast  possessions  with  Holland  ; first 
in  India,  then  in  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  For  a time  Holland  was  almost  completely 
dispossessed  by  her,  when  the  Batavian  Republic,  later 
the  Kingdom  of  Holland  of  Louis-Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
was  willy-nilly  compelled  by  Napoleon  the  First  to  take 
a hand  in  his  politics.3 

1 F.  Houtman  compiled  the  first  known  Malagasy  vocabulary. 

2 Houtman  was  not  opposed  by  the  Portuguese  ; they  rather 
welcomed  him  as  an  ally,  being  then  at  war  with  the  king  of 
Bantam.  In  return  for  their  services  the  Dutch  obtained  permission 
to  build  a factory,  which  they  eventually  had  to  abandon,  as  their 
arrogance  and  brutality  provoked  the  natives,  and  in  the  ensuing  hos- 
tilities they  shot  down  a large  number  of  the  latter.  Raffles  was  under 
the  impression  that  Houtman  had  been  employed  by  the  Portuguese 
in  the  East  Indian  trade.  On  the  way  to  Bantam  the  Dutch 
anchored  off  Madeira,  where  the  prince  wished  to  pa}’  his  respects  : 
but  they  fell  into  a panic  upon  observing  the  size  of  his  escort, 
and  massacred  nearly  all.  Raffles  remarks  that  even  thus  early 
the  Dutch  exhibited  the  mixture  of  haughty  superiority  and  extra- 
ordinary timidity  and  suspicion  which  characterised  all  their 
subsequent  proceedings. — [Trans.] 

3 Concerning  this  period,  see  O.  Collet,  L’tle  de  Java  sous  la 
domination  fraiifaise  (Paris,  1909,  large  8vo). 


GENERALITIES 


31 


The  treaties  of  1814  and  1815  re-established  the  House 
of  Nassau  on  the  Dutch  throne,  and  compelled  England 
to  restore  the  Indies.  England  even  renounced  her 
pretensions  to  Banka  in  return  for  the  cession  of  Cochin 
and  its  dependencies  on  the  Malabar  coast.  An  under- 
standing was  then  arrived  at  between  the  two  nations, 
India  and  the  Malay  Peninsula  being  completely  sur- 
rendered to  England,  and  the  Indies  to  the  Dutch,  who 
in  1824,  according  to  the  treaties  of  London,  abandoned 
their  remaining  settlements  in  India  and  the  Malacca 
Peninsula,  including  the  island  of  Singapore,  while 
England  abandoned  all  claims  to  Sumatra  and  Billiton.1 

In  order  to  become  absolute  mistress  in  her  sphere  of 
empire,  Holland  even  endeavoured,  but  without  success, 
to  obtain,  by  sale  or  exchange,  that  portion  of  Timor 
which  was  still  in  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese.  She 
did  not  succeed  ; but  the  treaty  of  1859  did  at  least  very 
precisely  delimit  the  frontier  between  the  Dutch  and 
Portuguese  portions  of  the  island. 

To-day,  in  the  eyes  of  Europe,  Holland  is  the  undis- 
puted mistress  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  excepting  only 
the  Portuguese  portion  of  Timor  and  the  north-western 
portion  of  the  great  island  of  Borneo,  where  the  formerly 
independent  Sultanates  of  Brunei  and  of  Sarawak  (the 
latter  founded  by  the  English  adventurer  famous  as  Rajah 
Brooke),  and  the  British  North  Borneo  Company,  still 
occupy  wide  territories.2 

IV. 

Unity  of  possession  seemed  almost  a logical  conse- 
quence of  the  remarkable  geological  and  physical  unity 
of  all  the  portions  of  this  great  empire. 

1 An  island  between  Banka  and  Borneo,  called  also  Bilitong,  or 
Blitung. 

1 These  two  Sultanates  are  to-day  under  the  protection  of  the 
English  Crown,  which  recognised  the  services  of  James  Brooke 
in  the  cause  of  colonial  expansion  by  creating  him  a baronet.  A 
volume  of  great  interest  is  “The  Private  Letters  of  Sir  James  Brooke, 
Rajah  of  Sarawak,  narrating  the  events  of  his  life,  from  1838  to  the 
present  time,”  edited  by  J.  C.  Templer,  London,  1853,  3 vols.  8vo. 


32 


JAVA 


Despite  the  disparate  sizes  of  the  various  islands,  and 
the  vast  dimensions  of  some,  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
from  Sumatra  to  New  Guinea,  are  all  of  the  same 
geological  structure.  From  east  to  west  is  a rampart 
of  volcanoes,  far-flung  in  the  arc  of  a gigantic  circle, 
which  crosses  the  shallow  waters  of  many  straits.  The 
various  islands  are  based  upon  the  north  on  the  same 
submarine  tableland,  above  which  lies  an  enclosed, 
peaceful  sea  ; while  the  outward  shores  are  separated 
from  the  nearest  land  by  vast  abysses  of  ocean  ; even 
from  those  countries  which  seem,  as  do  the  Philippines, 
to  be  closely  akin  to  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The 
islands  of  Sumatra  and  Java,  sloping  almost  directly  from 
their  heights  into  the  profound  depths  of  the  southern 
sea,  show  to  the  north  a lower  seaboard,  a coast-line 
more  idented,  cut  into  many  bays  ; but  the  volcanic  soil, 
brought  down  by  rivers  and  drifted  by  the  coastwise 
currents,  is  slowly  filling  the  harbours  and  adding  to  the 
area  of  the  land. 

Nearly  all  the  rivers  of  importance,  moreover,  flow 
into  that  inner  sea,  by  which  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  and  their  innumerable  satellites,  are  united 
rather  than  divided. 

The  rainy  seasons  and  the  climate  are  almost  the 
same  in  all  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  ; there  are, 
of  course,  inevitable  modifications,  but  the  climate  is 
tropical  without  excessive  variation,  and  in  general  may 
be  called  equable.  The  flora  and  fauna,  despite  their 
wealth  and  astonishing  variety,  have  in  all  parts  a simi- 
larity, and  at  the  same  time  a peculiarity  of  their  own, 
which  does  not  permit  of  their  attribution  to  any  of  the 
neighbouring  countries.  Situated  between  India  and 
Australia,  the  Malay  Archipelago  forms  a harmonious 
transition  between  these  two  countries.  To  the  west  its 
magnificent  fauna  and  flora  possess  distinct  character- 
istics which  yet  recall  India;  to  the  east  they  prophesy 
Australia,  by  forms  no  less  varied,  often  equally  strange, 
and  always  richer  and  more  abundant. 


GENERALITIES 


33 


V. 

In  the  matter  of  the  races  which  inhabit  the  East 
Indies,  we  find  a variety  of  types  apparently  as  great  as 
the  variety  of  the  flora  and  fauna — a variety  which  has 
often  confounded  the  ethnologists,  and  has  given  rise  to 
many  theories.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  recalling, 
in  its  broader  aspects,  the  theory  which  appears  to  us 
to  correspond  most  closely  to  the  actual  facts.  We  find, 
in  the  Indian  or  Malay  Archipelago,  of  which  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  form  a part,  four  great  ethnical  groups,  of  very 
unequal  intellectual  capacity  and  numerical  value.  These 
four  groups  are  the  Malays,  the  Indonesians,  the  Negritos, 
and  the  Papuans.  The  Malays  and  the  Indonesians,  by 
far  the  more  numerous,  form  the  basis  of  the  population 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  It  is  believed  that  there  are 
Negritos  in  the  archipelago  of  Rhio  and  Lingga ; but 
even  were  they  not  to  be  found  in  the  Dutch  possessions 
we  ought  not  to  pass  them  by,  since  they  do  exist  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  and  also  in  the  Philippines,  which 
islands  the  Dutch  East  Indies  resemble  at  so  many 
points. 

The  Papuans  (from  the  Malay  puwa-puwa,  “ who  have 
crinkled  hair”)  are  found  in  New  Guinea,  and  also,  to 
a limited  extent,  on  the  islands  of  Waigeu,  Salvatti, 
and  Aru ; while  groups  related  to  the  Papuans  inhabit 
the  islands  of  Buru,  Ceram,  Kei,  and  Tenimber,1  and 
are  possibly  descended  from  Papuan  slaves.  Natives 
of  Papuan  origin  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  Moluccas, 
Timor,  and  Flores.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
Kalangs  of  Java — a race  in  customs  comparable  to  the 
gipsies  of  Europe — might  be  of  Negrito  origin;  but  the 
suggestion  is  of  no  value. 

The  principal  ethnic  groups  of  the  Dutch  Indies, 
which  do  not  differ  very  greatly  from  one  another, 
consist  of  the  Malays  and  the  Indonesians.  The  term 
Indonesian  denotes  the  comparatively  pure  races  which 

1 Or  the  Tenimber  Islands,  or  Timor  Laut : a group  of  sixty-six 
little  islands  in  the  Molucca  Archipelago. 

4 


34 


JAVA 


inhabit  the  interior  of  the  large  islands,  such  as  the 
Dyaks  of  Borneo,  the  Bataks  of  Sumatra,  and  the  Alfurs 
or  Alfours  of  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas.  Unlike  the 
Polynesians,  who  are  tall  and  brachycephalic,  the  Indo- 
nesians are  seldom  above  5 ft.  2 in.  in  height,  and  are 
mesocephalic  or  dolichocephalic.  Both  races  are  yellow- 
skinned : their  hair  is  straight  or  slightly  curling  ; only  the 
form  of  the  nose,  lips,  &c.,  is  slightly  different. 

The  Malays,  on  the  contrary,  although  slightly  taller 
than  the  Indonesians  (the  average  height  being  5 ft.  3*4  in.), 
and  brachycephalic,  resemble  the  latter  very  closely,  but 
the  Malays  are  a mixed  race  and  in  consequence  present 
a much  greater  variety  of  types  than  the  Indonesians. 
If,  as  is  believed,  the  Malays — by  which  we  mean  the 
Malays  proper  (of  Menangkabau,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  the  coasts  of  many  islands),  as  well  as  the  Javanese, 
the  Madurese,  and  the  Sundanese — are  born  of  the 
mingling  of  Indonesian  with  Hindu,  Arab,  Chinese, 
Burman,  Negrito,  and  Papuan  elements,  then  the  Indo- 
nesians should  be  the  type  of  pure  Malays — the  Proto- 
malays,  in  a word  ; and  this  theory  appears  to  be  very 
close  to  the  truth.  In  Java  the  Indonesians  are  deeply 
crossed  with  Chinese  blood  ; the  Hindu  element  is  easily 
recognisable  in  Bali,  Sumatra,  and  certain  portions  of 
Java;  and  the  Arab  element  is  dominant  among  the 
Malays  of  Padang  and  in  Atjeh.  In  the  north  of  the 
Archipelago  the  influence  of  Negrito  1 blood  is  visible, 
although  the  signs  of  Papuan  blood  are  found  only  in 
the  south-east. 

The  appearance  of  the  inhabitant  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  varies  according  to  the  ethnic  group  to  which  he 
belongs  and  his  social  position.  The  farmer,  merchant, 
fisherman,  artisan,  and  pirate  are  not  likely  to  possess  the 
same  exterior,  the  same  bearing. 

Speaking  generally,  the  Malay  or  the  Indonesian  is 

1 See  T.  Deniker,  Les  races  et  les  peuples  de  la  terre  (Paris, 
1900,  8vo),  p.  554  et  seq.  See  also  the  article  on  Rassen  (“  Races  ”) 
in  the  Encycl.  v.  Ned.  Indie,  which  contains  an  excellent  exposition 
and  bibliography  of  the  question  of  the  races  of  the  Dutch  Indies. 


GENERALITIES 


35 


shorter  than  the  European  ; he  is  nearly  always  thin, 
but  well-built  and  respectably  muscular,  with  the  chest 
well  developed  ; the  joints,  hands,  and  feet  are  small, 
giving  an  impression  of  strength  and  suppleness.  His 
skin,  of  a colour  varying  from  a light  ruddy  brown  to  an 
olive  yellow,  is  usually  smooth  and  hairless ; his  head  is 
flat  and  wide,  the  cheek-bones  are  salient,  and  the  nose  of 
the  “ pudding”  or  “pug”  variety;  the  eyes  are  slightly 
oblique,  and  the  large,  thick-lipped  mouth  is  ill-concealed 
by  a thin  moustache.  The  hair  is  very  black,  and  harsh 
to  the  touch.  All  these  characteristics,  together  with  a 
mask  of  all  but  impenetrable  impassivity,  constitute  a 
physiognomy  which  the  unaccustomed  European  finds 
disquieting  rather  than  attractive,  and  of  which  the 
finished  type  is  found  in  the  true  Malay.  It  has  a certain 
touch  of  savagery,  of  strangeness — a quality  which  is 
lacking  or  attenuated  in  the  Javanese,  whose  more  slender 
physique  attains  at  times  a positive  degree  of  graceful 
elegance  and  reveals  in  every  movement  their  gentler 
breeding.  The  Madurese,  Sundanese,  and  Bugis,  of 
more  mingled  race  and  more  powerful  physique,  are 
more  like  the  Malays. 

All  these  various  races  have  a keen  intelligence, 
capable  of  improvement,  retaining  the  traces  of  a high 
civilisation ; and  under  their  reticent  aspect  they  are 
almost  always  polite  and  well-disposed  towards  the 
stranger. 

Although  they  have  never  risen  to  the  conception  of  a 
great  political  union,  or  even  the  idea  of  an  immense 
federation  of  the  States  of  the  Indian  Archipelago — a 
state  of  affairs  which  would  assuredly,  in  view  of  the 
large  and  warlike  populations  of  many  of  these  States, 
have  closed  the  Archipelago  to  Europeans — yet  the 
memory  of  their  past,  and  their  refined  susceptibilities, 
have  often  rendered  the  management  of  certain  of  these 
peoples  by  the  Dutch  a matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 

The  most  submissive  were  always  the  Javanese ; the 
Malays,  prouder  and  more  energetic,  submit  to  the  yoke 
with  more  impatience,  and  in  certain  districts  (for 


36 


JAVA 


example,  Atjeh,  or  Achin,  in  Sumatra)  they  are  still 
desperately  struggling  to  avoid  it. 

The  pride  of  the  Malay  seems  to  derive  wholly  from 
his  character  and  beliefs.  He  is  violent  and  vindictive  ; 
as  eager  to  feel  and  avenge  an  injury  to  his  self-respect 
as  is  the  Japanese,  who,  according  to  a recent  theory, 
is  a relative  of  the  Malay ; 1 and  his  loyalty  is  reputed 
uncertain.  Moreover,  he  is  a Mussulman,  with  so  ardent 
and  so  ancient  a faith  that  throughout  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago Malay  and  Mahomedan  are  synonymous  terms. 
He  is  conscious  of  a bitter  pride  in  belonging  to  a 
religious  community  which  is,  in  another  fashion,  as 
mighty  as  the  political  power  under  whose  domination 
he  lives.  A farmer  in  many  places,  but  more  often  a 
sailor,  he  is  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  the  seas  of  the 
Archipelago.  A trader,  and  on  occasion  a pirate,  the 
Malay  owes  his  reputation  of  extraordinary  courage  and 
audacity  to  his  long  history  of  fierce  conflicts,  and  owing 
to  his  recklessness  and  lack  of  scruples  the  importance  of 
his  position  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  his  numerical 
strength. 

Extremely  courageous,  the  Malays  are  also  better 
workers  than  the  Javanese;  but,  like  the  Chinese,  whose 
commercial  talent  they  share,  though  in  a less  degree, 
they  will  often  squander  the  savings  of  a year  on 
cock-fighting,  gambling,  women,  opium,  and  haschish.2 

1 See  chapter  ii.  of  L’Empire  japonais  et  sa  vie  economique,  by 
J.  Dautremer  (Librairie  Orientale  et  Americaine  : E.  Guilmoto). 

2 Our  author  makes  no  mention  of  hemp,  attributing  the  state  of 
amok  to  opium.  This,  as  is  well  known,  is  incorrect ; a long  period 
of  abstinence  from  opium  causes  a peculiar  form  of  poisoning, 
accompanied  by  excruciating  pains  and  an  unendurable  nervous 
distress  of  the  kind  known  as  “ massive  ” — i.e.,  felt  in  every  nerve 
of  the  body,  and  especially  in  the  pneumogastric  system — a system 
of  nerves  of  which  we  are,  as  a rule,  unconscious.  This  abominable 
torture  is,  however,  unaccompanied  by  any  delirium  or  illusions ; 
nor  are  such  caused  by  opium,  despite  the  vulgar  belief,  the 
mind  being,  as  a rule,  unusually  calm  and  clear.  Indian  hemp, 
or  cannabis  indica,  or  the  preparation  which  is  used  for  smoking, 
is  a very  different  drug.  Besides  its  characteristic  reaction  upon 
the  nervous  system  after  excess,  it  produces  profuse  visions  and 


GENERALITIES 


37 


Hemp  ( haschish ),  or  opium,  is  smoked  by  the  majority 
of  the  natives  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  by  the 
Malays  in  particular.  The  smoking  of  Indian  hemp  in 
particular  renders  the  habitue  subject  to  crises  of 
maniacal  fury,  known  by  the  term  amok.  This  peculiar 
access  of  fury  is  preceded  by  the  most  violent  depression  ; 
it  attacks  the  smoker  suddenly,  when  he  rushes  through 
the  streets,  armed  with  his  krees,  slashing  and  killing  all 
whom  he  meets. 

The  vice  of  "running  amok,”  which  seems  to  have 
existed  from  a quite  indeterminate  period  in  the  Malayan 
Peninsula  and  Archipelago,  became  so  prevalent  after 
the  European  occupation  that  the  Dutch  in  the  Indies 
and  the  English  in  Malacca  finally  passed  sentence  of 
death  upon  all  natives  captured  in  this  condition.  The 
singular  diminution  of  cases  of  amok  which  followed 
leads  one  to  believe  that  many  acts  of  political  or  private 
vengeance  were  performed  under  the  disguise  of  this 
peculiar  form  of  mania. 

VI. 

The  question  of  language  in  the  East  Indies  is  almost 
as  complex  as  the  question  of  races.  On  account  of 
the  multiplicity  of  tongues,  augmented  still  further  by 
the  insular  character  of  the  Dutch  colonial  possessions, 
which  has  resulted  in  the  birth  of  a considerable  number 
of  dialects  ; we  must  not  prematurely  classify  them  in  a 
genealogical  system,  or  attempt  to  declare  precisely  the 
degree  of  natural  relationship  which  connects  them. 
Although  the  time  has  hardly  come  for  this,  the  labours 
of  the  Dutch  linguists  have  at  least  enabled  us  to  state 
that  the  languages  of  the  East  Indies  belong  to  the  great 

illusions.  Readers  of  the  biographies  of  Omar  Khayyam  will 
remember  that  it  was  employed  by  Hassan,  the  schoolfellow  of 
the  poet,  to  give  the  novices  of  his  extraordinary  sect  a foretaste  of 
the  Paradise  to  which  their  absolute  obedience  would  admit  them 
upon  death.  The  followers  of  this  remarkable  religious  and 
political  murderer  became  known  as  assassins,  the  term  being 
derived  from  the  name  Hassan  ; hence  the  word  haschish. — [Trans.] 


38 


JAVA 


Malayo-Polynesian  family,  or  at  all  events  with  rare 
exceptions. 

By  general  agreement  they  are  divided  into  certain 
large  groups  which  comprise  a series  of  sub-divisions  in 
the  form  of  dialects. 

(a)  Group  of  the  Languages  of  Sumatra. — This  com- 
prises Achinese  (Atjeesch,  the  tongue  of  Atjeh),  Gayo, 
Batak  and  its  dialects  (Mandailing,  Toba,  Dairi,  Karo, 
&c.),  Retjang,  Lampong,  Simalour,  Nias,  Mentawei, 
Engano,  and  especially  the  most  important  of  all,  Malay 
and  its  dialects  (the  Malay  of  Minangkabau,  or  Menang- 
kabau,  of  Riouw  Lingga,  Middle  Malay,  and  Mamak). 

(b)  Group  of  the  Languages  of  Java. — This  group  in- 
cludes Javanese,  Sundanese,  Madurese,  and  their  dialects. 

(c)  Group  of  the  Languages  of  Celebes  and  the  neigh- 
bouring islands. — This  group  contains  many  idioms, 
often  confined  to  a limited  district : Sangirese,  the 
languages  of  Minahasa  (Tompahewa,  Tondano,  Tumbulu, 
Tonsawang,  Tonsea) ; Bolang,  Mongodow,  Ponosakan, 
Holontalo,  Mandarese  and  Kajeli  Tomini,  Pagouat, 
Luinan,  Kaidipan,  Bond,  Tontoli,  Malasa,  Tara,  Barei ; 
the  various  Toradjas  dialects,  Boutonese,  Laiwu ; 
Tobungku,  Tomsit  or  Tomini,  Banggaja  or  Peling  ; and 
finally  Macassar  and  Bugi,  which  are  far  more  important 
than  the  others. 

In  order  to  convey  any  true  idea  of  the  astonishing 
linguistic  variety  of  the  East  Indies,  we  must  not  fail  to 
mention,  in  connection  with  the  small  islands  of  the 
Sunda  group,  Balinese,  Sarsak-Balinese,  and  Sarsak, 
spoken  on  Bali  and  Lombok ; Sumbawarese  and 
Bimanese,  spoken  in  Sumbawa ; Endele  and  Liou, 
the  Mangerese  dialects,  Paga  and  Solarais,  spoken  in 
Flores  ; Kupang,  spoken  in  Timor,  and  Sumbanese  in 
Sumba.  In  the  Moluccas  Galelarese,  Tarnatese,  and 
various  other  dialects  are  spoken  ; and  in  New  Guinea, 
Nafor,  or  Mafor  and  Jotofese,  or  the  dialect  of  Jotafa,  &C.1 

1 For  further  details  see  H.  Blink,  Nederlandsch  Oost-en  West- 
Indie  (vol.  i.  p.  276  et  seq.).  K.  F.  Holle  has  drawn  up  a linguistic 
chart  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  reproduced  in  the  work  cited,  vol.  i.  p.  278. 


AVENUE  OF  BANYANS.  BU1TENZORG. 


GENERALITIES 


39 


Before  this  incredible  wealth  of  tongues,  which 
facilitated  their  conquest  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies  in  so 
far  as  up  to  the  time  of  their  arrival  it  had  prevented  the 
unification  of  the  different  peoples,  but  which  also 
rendered  their  organisation  more  laborious,  the  Dutch 
felt  the  need  of  an  official,  administrative  language,  which 
should  give  their  great  empire  at  least  a semblance  of 
unity.  From  the  time  of  their  arrival  they  endeavoured 
to  eradicate  the  Portuguese  language,  which  had  already 
spread  through  the  Archipelago  ; but  they  soon  saw  the 
futility  of  trying  to  impose  Dutch.  After  a few  unfruit- 
ful efforts  they  renounced  the  idea  ; while  during  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  they  acted  upon 
quite  a contrary  principle,  taking  the  greatest  pains  to 
prevent  the  natives  from  learning  their  language,  with 
the  idea  that  by  such  a course  they  would  increase  the 
prestige  of  the  European,  the  ruler  ; perhaps  also  with  a 
view  to  shrouding  in  mystery  the  relative  weakness  of 
the  Netherlands,  in  the  face  of  English  competition. 
Malay  thus  became  the  official  language  of  the  country. 

At  first  sight  it  would  seem  that  this  dignity  should  rather 
fall  to  the  Javanese  language,  which  is  spoken  by  more 
than  twenty-four  million  persons ; while  Malay  is  the 
mother-tongue  of  some  four  millions  only.  Javanese, 
however,  is  far  from  easy  to  tackle  ; its  grammar  and 
syntax  are  complicated  ; it  contains  modes  of  speech 
which  vary  as  one  addresses  an  inferior,  an  equal,  or  a 
superior  ; with  the  result  that  Javanese  has  never  over- 
passed the  limits  of  Java,  nor  has  it  even  succeeded  in 
displacing  Sundanese  or  Madurese ; while  Bugi  and 
Macassar,  despite  the  commercial  activity  of  the  people 
who  speak  them,  have  never  crossed  the  limits  of  their 
original  sphere.  The  Malay  language  owes  its  election, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  its  extreme  diffusion — a result  due 
to  its  own  qualities  and  that  of  the  Malay  race. 

It  is  not  only  the  language  of  the  various  Malay  groups 
established  in  Malacca,  Perak,  and  Singapore,  and 
throughout  the  whole  Peninsula  ; it  is  also  understood 
in  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  Celebes,  Flores,  Timor,  and 


40 


JAVA 


the  Moluccas,  and  in  all  the  southern  portion  of  the 
Philippines  ; by  millions  of  persons,  in  short,  all  of  whom 
belong  to  rich  countries  with  an  extensive  trade. 

In  French  Indo-China  Malay  is  spoken  by  one 
hundred  thousand  Malays  and  Shans  ; it  is  the  com- 
mercial language  of  the  Chinese  established  in  the  com- 
mercial city  of  Cholu,  and  the  Hindu  merchants  who 
are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  extreme 
Orient.1 

The  widespread  use  of  this  language,  in  comparison 
with  the  relatively  limited  number  of  Malays,  is  due  to 
the  simplicity,  the  suppleness,  and  the  harmonious  pro- 
nunciation of  the  Malay  tongue.  It  has  a great  facility  of 
assimilation,  so  that  wherever  it  has  been  adopted  it  has 
acquired  terms  borrowed  from  the  dialects  which  it  has 
replaced.  In  this  manner  the  conditions  of  its  history 
have  enriched  it  by  a large  number  of  terms  from 
Sanskrit,  Hindustani,  Arabian,  Persian,  Tamil,  Chinese, 
Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  English,  without  speaking  of  its 
debts  to  the  tongue  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  Javanese, 
Sundanese,  Madurese,  &c. 

We  may  discriminate  between  two  kinds  of  Malay. 
One  is  the  literary  language,  which  is  written  in  Arabic 
characters  ; a refined,  subtle  language,  full  of  fine  shades  ; 
a ceremonious,  dignified  language,  as  difficult  to  learn 
as  any  other  Asiatic  tongue.  The  other  is  the  “low 
Malay,”  “ vulgar  Malay,”  or  laag-maleisch,  as  it  is  known 
in  the  Indies ; a language  sufficing  those  who  are  dealing 
with  ordinary  matters,  enabling  them  to  travel  every- 
where without  an  interpreter,  and  to  converse  intelligibly 

1 The  Chinese  in  the  various  ports  of  the  China  Sea,  coming  from 
provinces  where  different  dialects  are  spoken,  or  who,  having  left 
their  country  in  childhood,  have  forgotten  their  mother-tongue,  all 
use  Malay  in  speaking  among  themselves.  In  Hongkong  a news- 
paper in  Malay  has  even  been  started  for  their  benefit  : the  Pembrita 
Tjung  Wa  (Chinese  information)  intended  to  give  them  news  of 
China,  and  also  the  translations  of  official  decrees,  &c.,  which  are 
likely  to  interest  them.  In  Java  the  Malay  journals  for  Chinese 
readers  are  very  numerous,  and  are  read  chiefly  by  merchants  and 
traders. 


GENERALITIES 


41 


with  the  natives : this  may  be  acquired  in  a few  months. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  this  language,  which  is  more 
or  less  artificial,  has  only  a remote  resemblance  to  the 
language  which  is  spoken  among  themselves  by  Malays 
of  good  education.  The  former  is  to  the  latter  what 
French  of  the  “ sawy-voo  ” order  is  to  the  French  of 
the  Academie.  But  any  one  who  wishes  to  acquire 
prestige  among  the  natives  or  the  notables  cannot  afford 
to  dispense  with  correct  Malay,  or  the  knowledge  of  the 
slightly  modified  Arabian  character  in  which  it  is  written, 
although  Europeans  are  gradually  more  and  more 
inclined  to  transcribe  the  Malay  literature  in  Latin 
characters,  as  are  the  authors  of  the  numerous  books  in 
Malay  which  are  always  appearing  in  the  Indies  on  all 
kinds  of  subjects. 

Malay  is  the  language  of  the  Chinese  merchants,  who 
hold  the  whole  retail  trade  of  Java  in  their  hands.  The 
prospectuses  and  announcements  of  all  kinds  of  the 
commercial  firms  and  navigation  companies  are  issued 
in  Malay.  European  products  (perfumery,  pharma- 
ceutical specialities,  &c.)  must  always  be  provided  with 
a prospectus  in  Malay  if  they  are  to  find  a place  on  the 
market. 

As  the  Dutch  on  their  arrival  found  that  the  Malay 
language  had  been  established  throughout  the  Indian 
Ocean  for  centuries  they  imposed  it  as  the  official 
language  upon  their  European  officials  as  well  as  upon 
the  natives.  At  the  present  time  all  examinations 
imposed  upon  colonial  officials  of  European  blood 
demand  a knowledge  of  Malay  as  an  obligatory  subject, 
as  well  as  a second  native  language,  which  is  left  to  the 
choice  of  the  candidate.  The  reports  of  the  central 
authority  and  of  the  native  chiefs  are  couched  in 
Malay  ; the  language  is  taught  in  all  the  schools  of  the 
colony,  and  in  order  to  avoid  the  greater  difficulties  of 
Javanese,  many  of  the  Javanese  notables  carry  on  their 
personal  and  mutual  correspondence  in  Malay.  Finally, 
thanks  to  the  missionaries  who  preach  in  Malay,  its 
diffusion  is  as  rapid  in  Menado  as  in  the  Moluccas. 


42 


JAVA 


In  our  days,  since  the  victories  of  Japan  and  the  Young 
Turkish  revolution,  the  entire  Far  East  seems  awakening 
to  a new  life.  It  is  demanding  the  right  to  come  out  of 
the  shadows  ; and  the  native  elite,  which  has  been  formed 
by  European  culture,  is  making  its  voice  heard  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  It  demands,  above  all,  two  things  : 
that  it  shall  be  granted  facilities  for  learning  the  language 
of  its  masters,  the  better  to  assimilate  their  civilisation  ; 
and  that  a more  prominent  place  shall  be  given  to  the 
Javanese  language,  on  account  of  its  numerical  import- 
ance. The  Government  has  accordingly  inscribed 
Dutch  upon  the  programme  of  its  principal  schools 
for  natives ; but  as  the  knowledge  of  the  language  is 
rather  a means  for  the  wholly  nationalistic  claims  of 
the  natives,  rather  than  an  end  in  itself,  it  is  hardly  prob- 
able that  it  will  ever  become  the  official  language  of 
the  Duch  East  Indies.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  having 
regard  to  the  importance  of  Java,  a knowledge  of  Javanese 
on  the  part  of  the  European  officials  were  eventually  con- 
sidered almost  as  necessary  as  that  of  Malay,  the  diffi- 
culties which  it  presents  to  the  non-Javanese  would  long 
continue  to  prevent  it  from  supplanting  Malay. 

At  the  present  time  Dutch  is  spoken  in  the  East 
Indies  only  by  the  colonists,  among  themselves  and  in 
their  homes.  Useful  as  the  knowledge  of  Dutch  may 
be,  the  traveller  may  perfectly  well  replace  it  by  a 
knowledge  of  English,  or  preferably  of  French,  which 
is  in  common  use  in  good  society.  But  in  respect  of 
the  native  element,  or  even  of  the  foreigners — Arabs, 
Japanese,  Chinese — the  traveller  cannot  afford  to  dis- 
pense with  a knowledge  of  Malay  if  he  wishes  to  settle 
in  the  Indies,  or  merely  to  derive  all  possible  profit 
from  a journey  undertaken  simply  for  pleasure  and 
instruction. 

The  duration  and  the  relatively  pacific  history  of  the 
Dutch  domination  in  the  Indies  is  due  very  largely  to 
their  talent  for  organisation.  Having  entered  the  Archi- 
pelago with  one  aim  only,  and  that  a practical  and  com- 
mercial aim,  they  did  not  allow  themselves  to  be  seduced 


GENERALITIES 


43 


into  the  Imperialism  of  the  Spaniards  or  the  Portuguese, 
and  never  exhibited  any  desire  to  impose  their  own 
faith  and  mentality,  to  say  nothing  of  an  extreme  sub- 
jection as  well,  upon  the  peoples  of  the  Archipelago. 
They  were  too  wise  to  arouse  the  fanaticism  of  the 
Malays  and  Javanese  by  an  imprudent  proselytism  ; nor 
did  they  make  the  mistake  of  remaining  indifferent  in 
face  of  the  religious  ideas  of  less  civilised  peoples.  All 
the  native  faiths  were  protected  by  them  with  absolute 
justice,  unless  they  were  absolutely  inimical  to  their 
power.  For  a long  period  they  kept  a very  keen  eye 
upon  the  preaching  of  the  Gospels  in  the  Indies,  in 
order  to  control  the  excessive  and  irritating  zeal  of 
certain  missionaries,  and  avoid  any  religious  upheaval ; 
even  to-day  the  latter  are  allowed  persuasion  as  their 
only  weapon,  and  the  authorities  preserve  a wholly  politic 
neutrality  in  religious  questions. 

Again,  they  have  made  no  attempt  to  cover  the  whole 
of  their  immense  possessions  by  the  network  of  a facti- 
tious administrative  uniformity. 

They  have  felt,  in  the  midst  of  these  many  populations, 
with  all  their  diversity,  the  impossibility  of  such  an 
undertaking,  and  have,  with  very  good  sense,  made  use 
of  the  political  institutions  of  the  natives,  whenever  such 
were  not  too  obviously  hostile  to  their  effectual  domi- 
nation. Moreover,  side  by  side  with  territories  adminis- 
tered by  themselves,  they  have  retained  a number  of 
other  territories  having  at  their  head  a sultan  or  a rajah ; 
these  they  left  on  their  chairs  of  state,  and  beside  the 
representative  symbol  of  authority,  who  calms  the  national 
susceptibilities  of  the  natives,  they  have  set  a European 
official,  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  over  the  nominal 
sovereign,  and  on  occasion  prompt  his  actions. 

Their  purely  economic  ambition  has  not  always,  it  is 
true,  saved  them  from  certain  regrettable  actions  of 
cupidity,  or  tactless  oppression  ; the  methodical  devas- 
tation of  the  spice-trees  on  the  Banda  Islands  (1621), 
and  the  semi-extirpation  of  its  inhabitants,  in  order  to 

aintain  the  high  market  value  of  spices  by  restraining 


44 


JAVA 


their  production,  were  actions  hardly  calculated  to 
endear  them  to  the  natives ; and  in  the  nineteenth 
century  the  system  of  forced  labour,  having  for  some 
years  enriched  Holland  at  the  expense  of  her  colonies, 
came  near  to  bringing  total  ruin  upon  the  latter,  and 
alienating  the  loyalty  of  the  natives. 

It  is  none  the  less  true  that  the  Netherlands,  endowed 
with  these  magnificent  possessions,  where  the  climate  is 
equable  and  labour  abundant,  have,  by  means  of  an  able 
and  prudent  administration  which  has  lasted  more  than 
three  centuries,  increased  the  wealth  of  their  colonies 
tenfold,  without  either  decimating  or  bastardising  the 
native  races. 

Admirably  situated  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the 
China  Sea,  a point  of  union  between  the  East  and  the 
Far  East ; blessed  with  a subsoil  rich  in  petroleum,  coal, 
silver,  gold,  and  tin  ; with  a soil  fruitful  in  rice,  sugar, 
coffee,  tea,  quinine,  and  indigo  ; with  well-equipped 
ports ; with  3,180  miles  of  railways  and  tramways  (a 
figure  that  will  shortly  touch  3,490)  ; with  a trade  which, 
in  1906,  amounted,  in  respect  of  imports,  to  £23,655,699 
and  in  respect  of  exports  to  £25,910,803,  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  are  to-day  not  merely  one  of  the  finest  colonial 
possessions  which  Europe  possesses  in  Asia,  but  seem 
destined  to  play  a great  part  in  the  economical  and 
political  struggle  for  supremacy  in  Asia  to  which  Europe 
and  the  East  have  been  parties  since  the  eighteenth 
century. 


CHAPTER  III 


JAVA  AND  MADURA  : PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

I.  Their  shape. — II.  Their  geological  constitution  and  orographical 
aspect. — III.  Streams  and  rivers  of  Java  and  Madura;  their 
qualities  as  alluvial  agents,  and  their  insufficiency  as  water- 
ways ; their  influence  upon  the  coast-line  and  the  harbours. — 
IV.  The  climate  : its  stability. — V.  The  Javanese  flora. — VI. 
The  Javanese  fauna. 


I. 

Java  and  its  annex,  Madura,  are  in  the  form  of  a long 
quadrilateral,  the  area  being  50,440  square  miles,  of 
which  the  axis  is,  in  its  eastern  part,  slightly  inclined 
towards  the  north.  By  its  situation  in  the  centre  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  which  places  even  Sumatra  and  Borneo, 
two  very  much  larger  islands,  in  a certain  position  of 
dependence  ; by  the  richness  of  its  soil,  the  abundance 
and  variety  of  its  flora  and  fauna,  the  activity,  intelligence 
and  civilisation  of  its  inhabitants,  and  the  beauty  of  its 
landscapes,  Java  remains  the  pearl  of  the  Orient. 
Although  in  the  matter  of  dimensions  it  holds  only 
the  fourth  place,  on  the  other  hand  it  contains 
three-fourths  of  the  population,  and  is  responsible 
for  four-fifths  of  the  entire  production  of  the  Archi- 
pelago. 

Java  has  often  been  compared  to  its  equatorial 
counterpart,  Cuba,  whose  area,  shape,  and  orientation 
are  perceptibly  like  her  own  ; but  Java,  by  itself,  is  more 
thickly  populated  and  more  wealthy  than  Cuba  and  all 
Central  America  together. 


45 


46 


JAVA 


II. 

The  long  and  methodical  explorations  of  which  Java 
has  been  the  object  for  a space  of  several  centuries  have 
made  it  one  of  the  best-known  countries  in  the  world. 
But  although  described  by  Valentyn,  Marsden,  Raffles, 
and  Horsfield,  the  determination  of  its  geological  forma- 
tion in  a really  scientific  fashion  was  commenced  only  in 
1820,  or  thereabouts,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Company 
of  the  Indies,  and  thanks  to  the  zeal  of  numerous  scientists 
such  as  Horner,  Schwaner,  and  Macklot.  In  1840  a new 
period  opened,  which  is  dominated  by  the  celebrated 
name  of  Franz  Junghuhn,  who  for  many  years  was 
incessantly  travelling  through  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  in 
particular  Java,  almost  all  of  whose  volcanoes  he  climbed 
in  succession.  He  even  died  in  Java,  leaving  behind  him 
the  memory  of  a life-work  admirably  performed,  and  the 
most  valuable  observations  as  to  the  geological  structure 
of  the  East  Indies.  Finally,  in  1880,  with  the  advent  of 
the  first  mining  engineers,  whose  aim  was  severely  prac- 
tical, a series  of  fresh  observations  was  commenced, 
which  were  at  first  confined  more  especially  to  Banka, 
Borneo,  and  Sumatra,  but  soon  spread  to  Java,  and 
finally  furnished  an  exact  description  of  the  latter  island. 
The  most  eminent  name  of  this  period  is  that  of  R.  D.  M. 
Verbeek,  whose  important  geographical  and  topographical 
works  are  well  known. 

Java  belongs  to  the  great  Malayan  curve,  which  starts 
from  Burmah,  runs  down  the  Peninsula,  traversing 
Sumatra  and  Java,  and  finally  turns  to  the  north-east, 
piercing  Santal  Island  and  Timor,  and  reaching  New 
Guinea  through  Ceram.  Tertiary  formations  play  a 
great  part  in  the  geological  constitution  of  Java,  despite 
the  belief  that  formerly  obtained ; and  the  same  is  true 
of  Borneo  and  Sumatra.  More  ancient  formations  are 
found  in  Java,  in  the  shape  of  cretacean  strata,  but  no 
fossils  are  found,  excepting  in  Borneo,  which  antedate 
the  tertiary  period. 

The  volcanoes  which  are  still  so  characteristic  of  the 


JAVA  AND  MADURA 


47 


Archipelago,  and  of  Java  in  particular,  belong  to  the 
quaternary  period.  They  seem  to  have  manifested  an 
alarming  activity  since  the  dawn  of  the  historical  era — 
an  activity  which  some  retain  only  too  fully  for  the 
security  of  the  neighbouring  inhabitants.  Already  more 
than  90  are  known  in  Sumatra  ; in  Java  there  are  more 
than  140.  In  these  two  islands  the  degree  of  volcanic 
activity  is  greater  than  anywhere  else  on  the  face  of  the 
earth  ; while  the  other  islands  of  the  Sound,  and,  to  a 
less  degree,  Celebes  and  the  Moluccas,  are  all  well  pro- 
vided with  volcanoes  ; indeed  many  of  them,  and 
amongst  others  Banda,  in  the  Moluccas,  are  merely  the 
fragments  of  ancient  craters. 

Java,  whose  southern  coast-line  rises  almost  perpen- 
dicularly from  the  tremendous  depths  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  sinks  in  far  gentler  slopes  towards  the  inner  seas, 
where  a submarine  tableland,  which  lies  at  no  great 
depth,  unites  it  with  Borneo. 

The  coast  of  Java  is  rich  in  bays  and  inlets;  but 
the  shelter  which  they  afford  is  naturally  safer  on  the 
northern  shore,  which  is  lined  by  a girdle  of  islands — 
the  Thousand  Isles  ( Duizend-Eilanden ),  the  Karimond- 
jawas,  the  Solombos,  and  so  forth ; which  are  like  so 
many  vast  bouquets  of  flowers  and  foliage  cast  down 
upon  the  threshold  of  this  magnificent  country. 

The  entire  backbone  of  the  long  island,  so  graceful 
in  shape  as  compared  with  Borneo,  or  even  with  Sumatra, 
is  formed  by  the  chain  of  its  volcanoes.  Volcano  upon 
volcano,  from  west  to  east,  they  stretch  from  end  to  end 
of  Java.  They  stand  in  sequence  rather  than  in  a series ; 
there  are  groups  of  three,  or  it  may  be  four  together, 
enclosing  between  their  flanks  narrow  and  verdurous 
valleys ; or  they  rise  in  isolation,  leaving  between  two 
summits  plains  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles'  breadth,  which  are 
commonly  of  incomparable  fertility.  There  are  lakes 
among  them  here  and  there,  but  these  are  rare  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  Sumatra. 

The  most  famous  of  these  volcanoes  are  in  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  island  ; the  Salak,  not  far  from  Buitenzorg^ 


48 


JAVA 


which  is  visited  by  numbers  of  tourists ; its  neighbour 
the  Gedei  (or  the  Great),  some  9,700  feet  high,  whose 
summit  is  crowned  with  hot  vapours  and  its  flanks  with 
magnificent  vegetation.  This  volcano  may  be  seen  from 
Sukabumi,  and  is  connected  with  Pangerango,  whose 
wooded  flanks  are  topped  by  a wide  terrace  nearly  eight 
miles  in  circumference.  The  traveller  who  does  not  fear 
the  quite  endurable  fatigue  of  the  ascent  may  behold, 
from  this  terrace,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  panoramas  in 
the  world  : on  all  hands  are  the  fertile  plains  and  valleys 
of  Java,  full  of  a wonderful  cultivation  and  sloping  gently 
northwards  down  to  the  Javan  sea,  while  to  the  west  and 
south  they  fall  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Then  follows 
Patuha,  whose  deep-seated  activity  is  continually  betrayed 
by  audible  rumblings  ; Papandajan,  or  the  Forge,  the 
seat  of  continual  uproar  and  eruptions  of  jets  of  steam  ; 
Gunung  Guntur  (Mount  Thunder),  whose  grey,  bare 
mass,  rising  from  an  ocean  of  verdure,  seems  to  reveal 
its  deadly  temper  ; and  Galunggung,  whose  eruptions  are 
still  more  disastrous,  although  its  aspect  is  less  forbidding. 

After  the  last-named  volcano  the  series  breaks  up  into 
a country  of  plateaux  of  inconsiderable  height,  until 
the  high  plain  of  Bandung  is  reached,  around  which 
are  grouped  Burangrang,  Tangkuban  Prahu,  and  Tam- 
pomas.  Distant  and  remote,  in  an  isolation  increased  by 
the  majesty  of  its  wooded  slopes  and  its  ever-smoking 
crater,  rises  Slamat,  which  stands,  as  it  were,  a sentinel 
between  the  volcanic  groups  of  the  west  and  the  centre  of 
the  island.  Among  the  latter  are  Rogo  Djambangan, 
Prahu,  the  magnificent  Sindoro,  Sumbing,  and  Merapi, 
which  rise  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  tableland  of 
Dieng,  from  which  the  spurs  of  Prahu  rise.  To  the  east 
of  Merapi  is  Gunung  Sewu,  or  Dnizendgebergte  (the 
Thousand  Mountains)  whose  valleys  are  so  fresh  and 
fertile  that  their  ideal  beauty  is  famous  throughout  the 
island. 

To  the  south  of  Surabaja  the  series  of  the  eastern 
volcanoes  begins  with  Gunung  Kelut,  or  the  Broom  ; 
then  comes  Kawi,  then  Ardjuna,  of  the  many  crests  ; then 


TEMPLE  OK  BORO-BUDUR, 


JAVA  AND  MADURA 


49 


Tengger,  and  Semaru,  the  highest  peak  in  Java  (12,300 
feet).  In  this  region  was  established  of  old  the  famous 
Indo-Javanese  kingdom  of  Madjapahit,  which  succumbed, 
at  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  or  early  in  the  six- 
teenth, to  the  armed  proselytism  of  Islam ; but  the 
vanquished  faith  held  out  for  years  on  the  volcanic  slopes 
to  which  its  last  professors  fled,  and  left  behind  it  not 
only  the  ruins  of  many  remarkable  Hindu  temples  on  the 
Dieng  tableland,  but  a long-enduring  memory  in  the 
mind  of  the  people. 

The  volcanoes,  which  have  greatly  contributed  to  the 
physical  integrity  of  Java,  by  emitting,  in  the  shape  of 
lava,  cinders,  and  the  alluvial  ooze  of  the  many  rivers, 
the  material  of  the  many  islands  of  which  it  must  once 
have  consisted,  have  no  less  added  to  its  beauty.  Their 
majestic  outlines,  their  mighty  flanks,  clad  with  the 
densest  foliage,  or,  more  rarely,  rising  stark  and  bare, 
crowned  with  clouds  of  burning  vapour,  seamed  with 
a thousand  streams  and  geysers,  all  multiply  the  vivid 
charm  of  the  plains  and  valleys,  rich  in  the  bright 
vegetation  of  the  coffee  plantations  or  the  spreading 
rice-fields.  Moreover,  the  volcanoes,  on  account  of  their 
thermal  springs,  their  mountain  stations,  and  the  sana- 
toria built  upon  their  lower  slopes,  and,  above  all,  on 
account  of  the  extraordinary  fertilising  power  of  their 
ejecta,  are  still  one  of  the  leading  elements  of  the 
material  prosperity  of  Java.  It  is  at  the  foot  of  the 
most  famous  volcanoes  that  the  most  flourishing  crops 
are  found. 

It  is  true  that  they  are  also  at  times  a terrible  cause 
of  ruin  and  devastation.  Although  Salah  has  not  been 
in  active  eruption  since  1699,  Papandajan,  whose  voice 
is  still  heard  at  a distance,  broke  out  into  an  eruption 
in  1772  which  swallowed  up  whole  villages ; and 
Gunung  Guntur,  or  Mount  Thunder,  has  on  several 
occasions  destroyed  more  coffee  plantations  than  it  has 
fertilised.  It  is  recorded  that  in  1843,  during  a slight 
eruption,  the  sun  was  hidden  for  half  the  day,  while 
ten  million  tons  of  dust  were  thrown  10,000  feet  into 

5 


50 


JAVA 


the  air ; while  Galunggung,  in  1824,  covered  with  a tide 
of  boiling  mud  more  than  114  villages,  and  thousands 
of  natives;  while  Lamongan  and  Raoun,  on  the  shores  of 
the  Straits  of  Bali,  to  cite  only  the  more  notable  vol- 
canoes, have  shown  themselves  equally  formidable. 
Such  eruptions  as  those  mentioned  not  only  destroy 
villages,  natives,  and  crops,  but  also  make  the  land  a 
desert  for  many  years  ; for  beasts  of  prey  howl  amidst 
the  ruins,  and  when  the  forests  have  reconquered  the 
spurs  of  the  volcano  they  take  up  their  abode  in  them, 
thus  greatly  adding  to  the  difficulties  of  re-establishing 
civilisation.  The  Gedei  is  subject  to  alternate  earth- 
quakes and  eruptions,  and  the  former,  the  result  of  its 
subterranean  upheavals,  are  perhaps  more  terrible  than 
the  latter.  The  last,  in  1879,  destroyed  Sindanglaja,  the 
sanatorium,  and  the  neighbouring  villages. 

The  mountain  system  of  Madura  is  only  a subordi- 
nate continuation  of  that  of  Java.  Although  the  island 
is  generally  hilly,  the  highest  summits,  such  as  Tam- 
buhu,  do  not  exceed  1,200  or  1,300  feet. 

III. 

The  hydrography  of  Java  arises  from  the  volcanic 
character  of  its  orography  ; water  is  abundant,  but  the 
streams  are  torrential,  and  their  courses  are  determined 
by  the  enormous  median  mass  of  the  mountains. 

Those  to  the  south,  being  more  closely  confined 
between  the  volcanoes  and  the  coast,  which  dips 
abruptly  into  a deeper  ocean,  are  too  short  and  too 
rapid  to  be  easily  navigable.  But  those  of  the  north 
wind  across  the  wide  plains,  which  slope  more  gently  to 
the  coast,  and  empty  themselves  into  the  enclosed  waters 
of  the  Archipelago,  which,  calmer  and  shallower  than 
the  Indian  Ocean,  are  slowly  completing  the  work  of 
the  volcanoes,  which,  having  created  Java  by  the  junc- 
tion of  many  islands,  tend  incessantly  yet  further  to 
increase  its  area.  The  detritus  carried  by  the  rivers  to 
their  bars  or  deltas,  together  with  the  overflow  of  lavas 


JAVA  AND  MADURA 


51 


and  ashes,  and  the  reefs  of  coral  which  emerge  at  every 
eruption,  increase  the  area  of  the  island  imperceptibly 
but  continuously,  diminishing  the  bays,  transforming  the 
islands  into  peninsulas,  but  silting  up  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers  and  the  best  harbours  on  the  coast. 

These  rivers,  which  in  Javanese  bear  the  name  of  kali, 
and  in  Sundanese  that  of  tji  or  tchyi,  had  to  be  greatly 
improved  by  dredging,  embanking,  &c.,  before  they 
were  of  any  use  for  navigation.  Naturally  enough,  this 
work  was  commenced  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Batavia, 
where  the  Dutch  had  first  established  themselves  ; and 
the  many  narrow  water-ways  of  the  province  and  city 
of  Batavia  were  the  first  to  be  rendered  navigable.  But 
we  must  look  to  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  to  find 
a river  really  worthy  of  the  name  : the  Kali  Solo,  brim- 
ming with  the  waters  which  descend  from  Merapi  and 
Merbahu,  and  navigable  by  boats  of  considerable  size 
over  its  entire  length  of  310  miles.  Its  magnificent 
estuary  would  be  accessible  to  large  ocean-going  vessels 
were  it  not  obstructed  by  gigantic  sand-banks. 

The  same  drawback  affects  the  other  large  water-way 
of  the  northern  slope  of  Java,  the  Kali  Brantas,  which 
debouches  to  the  south  of  the  Strait  of  Madura.  It  is 
wide,  with  an  abundant  flow  of  water,  but  so  impeded 
by  mud  and  sand  that  no  large  vessels  can  make  use 
of  it. 

The  rivers  of  the  southern  slope  would  be  even  less 
navigable  than  those  of  the  north,  had  not  the  Dutch 
undertaken  works  of  canalisation — to  such  effect  that 
the  wide  estuary  of  the  Tji  (or  Kali)  Tanduwi,  or  Tanduj, 
is  open  even  to  steamboats.  But  will  it  permit  of  their 
entry  much  longer  ? Scarcely,  without  human  interven- 
tion ; for  it  is  filling,  day  by  day,  with  its  alluvial  wealth, 
the  large  gulf  known  as  Segara  Anakan,  the  Sea  of  Chil- 
dren or  Kindzee ; and  little  by  little  its  muddy  deposits 
are  annexing  the  island  of  Kembangan,  once  far  from 
the  coast,  but  now  connected  with  the  mainland. 

The  shores  of  Java  suffer  from  the  same  trouble ; full 
of  wide  bays  or  inlets,  especially  on  the  northern  side, 


52 


JAVA 


the  double  action  of  volcano  and  river  is  daily  tending 
to  fill  their  depths  ; in  the  course  of  time  they  disappear, 
while  new  bays  and  inlets  are  formed  by  the  annexation 
of  coastwise  islands  by  the  incessant  outward  movement 
of  the  shoals.  Hence  the  shores  of  Java  are  only  too 
often  bordered  by  long  stretches  of  muddy  shoals — 
lagoons  whose  treacherous  islands,  covered  with  rank 
foliage,  are  noisome  with  swamp  miasma,  and  the  breed- 
ing-ground  of  deadly  fevers. 

IV. 

The  climate — or,  we  might  say,  the  climates  of  Java, 
for  it  varies  according  to  the  height  and  aspect  of  what- 
ever part  of  the  island  we  consider — is  like  all  tropical 
climates.  It  is  at  once  moist  and  hot;  for  Java  lies  in 
the  zone  of  the  trade  winds,  the  belt  of  alternate  mon- 
soons. One,  the  “good  monsoon,"  or  the  dry  season, 
lasts  from  June  to  September  ; the  other,  the  “bad  mon- 
soon," or  the  rainy  season,  lasts  from  December  to 
March.  The  best  time  for  the  traveller  to  land  in  Java 
is  the  month  of  April  or  May. 

The  chief  peculiarity  of  the  climate  of  the  Indies,  and 
of  Java  in  especial,  is  the  equability  of  the  temperature 
all  the  year  round.  In  Batavia  the  thermometer  marks 
an  average  of  79'5°  from  June  to  October,  or  the  period 
known  as  the  hot  season,  but  during  the  cold  season, 
or  in  January  and  February,  it  very  rarely  falls  below 
7740-1 

It  is  far  less  damp  in  Java  than  in  Sumatra ; but  it  is 
damper  in  the  western  than  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
island,  whence  the  vegetation  in  the  former  is  infinitely 

1 In  Batavia  the  highest  average  temperature  is  recorded  in 
September — 79'45° — and  October — jg-66°.  The  average  for  the  whole 
year  is  78,8°.  The  absolute  maximum  recorded  was  reached  on 
the  6th  of  November,  1877,  at  one  o’clock  in  the  afternoon — 96-i°  ; 
the  absolute  minimum  on  the  9th  of  August,  1877,  at  six  in  the 
evening — 66°.  (Observations  made  between  1866  and  1900,  cited 
by  Blink,  Ned.  Oost-en  West-Indie,  vol.  i.  pp.  127,  132.) 


JAVA  AND  MADURA 


53 


more  luxurious  than  in  the  latter.  As  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago  approach  Australia  their  climate  becomes 
always  drier  and  their  vegetation  less  exuberant  than  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  peninsula  and  India. 

The  range  of  temperatures,  already  small  in  Batavia 
and  the  western  plains,  becomes  still  smaller  in  the 
interior,  and  is  noticeable  only  on  the  heights,  where 
the  rains  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence  and  the  thunder- 
storms of  tremendous  violence  and  extraordinary  fre- 
quency. There,  or  at  least  in  certain  localities,  the 
thermometer  rarely  rises  above  8o‘6°  in  the  daytime, 
while  at  night  it  ranges  between  57-2°  and  6o‘8° — a 
climate  which  puts  life  into  those  depressed  by  the 
anaemia  of  Batavia  and  the  large  towns  of  the  coast,  and 
which,  helped  out  by  the  beauty  of  the  surrounding 
landscape  and  a little,  perhaps,  by  comparison,  is 
qualified  as  delicious.  Such  a climate  is  found  in  Suka- 
bumi,  Bandung,  and  Garut  in  the  west,  and  in  Malang 
in  the  east.  It  is  this  climate  which  has  led  the  Dutch 
Government  to  establish  a number  of  sanatoria  at  Suka- 
bumi,  Sindanglaja,  and  Tegal-laga,  near  Bandung,  in  the 
Preangers ; at  Pelantungan,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Samarang ; at  Tosari  and  Puspa,  in  the  residency  of 
Pasuruan.  These  establishments,  the  like  of  which  are 
sadly  lacking  in  French  Indo-China,  allow  the  colonists 
and  officials  suffering  from  dysentery,  liver  complaints, 
fevers,  &c.,  to  recruit  themselves.  One  of  them,  that  of 
Tosari,  is  the  only  spot  on  the  island  which  is  absolutely 
free  from  malaria. 


V. 

The  splendour  of  the  Javanese  vegetation  has  been 
celebrated  for  centuries  and  in  many  strains.  Thanks  to 
the  situation  of  the  island  beneath  the  Equator,  which 
ensures  the  privilege  of  perpetual  summer  and  unfailing 
rains  ; thanks  to  its  high  mountains,  which  break  the 
winds,  condense  the  clouds  into  moisture,  and,  having 
fertilised  the  soil  with  their  lavas,  refresh  it  with  life- 


54 


JAVA 


giving  waters,  the  flora  of  Java  is  as  rich  as  it  is  varied. 
It  may  be  seen  under  many  aspects,  accordingly  as  one 
explores  the  shores,  the  plains,  the  first  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  or  their  heights.  Along  the  coast  grows  the 
dwarf-palm,  or  Nipa  fruticans  (Wurmb.),  whose  leaves 
(atap)  serve  to  thatch  the  huts  of  the  natives  ; the  beautiful 
Maripa  palm  ( Attalea  maripa  Mart.),  the  cycadeus,  and 
the  pandanus.  In  the  plains  and  the  foothills  of  the 
ranges,  side  by  side  with  the  carefully  cultivated  food- 
crops,  which  the  labour  of  man  obtains  from  or  imposes 
on  the  soil,  and  of  which  there  are  many  not  native  to 
the  Indies  : side  by  side  with  the  fields  of  rice,  the  planta- 
tions of  coffee,  quinine,  cinnamon,  cotton,  sugar-cane, 
pepper,  tobacco,  vanilla,  and  tea,  grow  the  pisang,  or 
banana-tree,  the  coco-palm,  the  aren  or  sugar-palm,1 
the  fan-palm,  the  lontar,  or  Borassus  flabelliformis  L.,  a 
cousin  of  the  date-palm,  and  the  rattan  (Malay,  rotan), 
or  climbing  palm ; in  short,  all  the  family  of  palms — 
wonderful  not  so  much  by  reason  of  the  number  of 
their  varieties,  which  barely  exceeds  three  hundred,  as 
on  account  of  their  grace  and  the  charm  which  they  add 
to  the  landscape,  and,  above  all,  the  many  ways  in  which 
they  are  of  service  to  the  natives.  The  most  useful  are 
the  sago-palm  (the  Malay  Pohon  sagu — Metro  xylon  sagns 
Roxb.),  with  its  nourishing  pith,  the  sugar-palm,  and  the 
toddy-palm,2  known  by  the  name  of  their  precious  gifts. 
Besides  the  palms  we  must  mention  the  bamboo,  a plant 
so  necessary  that  we  cannot  imagine  the  life  of  the 
inhabitant  of  the  Far  East  without  the  constant  assist- 
ance of  the  bamboo,  which  is  put  to  a hundred  uses  ; 
and  the  great  figs,  or  banyans,  of  which  one  variety — the 
Ficus  benjaminea  L.  (Malay,  beringin,  beraksa ; Javanese, 
waringin) — puts  forth  such  a multitude  of  hanging  roots 
from  its  trunk  and  branches  that  one  individual  tree  will 

1 The  Javanese  name  for  the  Arenga  saccharifera  Lab.,  the  sap  of 
which  produces  the  aren  sugar,  so  appreciated  by  the  Javanese. 

2 Palm  wine  and  palm  sugar  are  furnished  by  the  following 
species : Arenga  saccharifera,  Borassus  flabelliformis,  Cocos  nucifera, 
Nipa  fruticans,  &c. 


JAVA  AND  MADURA 


55 


constitute  a whole  grove  by  itself,  so  large  is  the  space 
which  it  covers  and  shelters  ; the  Altingia  excelsa,  which 
produces  the  resin  known  as  liquid  amber  (in  Malay, 
getah  rasamala)  which  is  used  in  medicine,  and  grows 
sometimes  to  a height  of  160  feet ; enormous  tree-ferns  ; 
myriads  of  lianas,  so  long,  strong,  and  supple  that  the 
natives  often  throw  them  across  rivers  or  ravines  to 
serve  as  bridges,  while  the  trees  caught  in  their  embrace 
quickly  die  of  strangulation. 

On  the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  at  a greater  altitude 
and  in  a lower  temperature,  the  traveller  will  be  surprised 
to  see,  in  juxtaposition  with  the  wonderful  products  of 
the  tropical  flora,  a large  number  of  trees  which  are 
known  to  our  temperate  climate.  The  king  of  the 
Javanese  forest,  the  Tectona  grandis  L.,  the  djati,  jati,  or 
teak,  whose  close  and  almost  impenetrable  grain  makes 
it  of  the  greatest  value  in  shipbuilding,  may  be  seen 
growing  next  to  the  oak,  the  maple,  the  lime,  the  ilex, 
the  chestnut,  and  the  pine.  Above  the  height  of  6,500  feet 
these  are  replaced  by  thickets  which  grow  sparser  and 
greyer  as  the  belt  of  heat  without  moisture  is  reached, 
but  after  the  rainy  season  one  may  find  on  the  flanks  of 
the  volcano  the  violets  and  buttercups  of  the  West.  But 
one  also  finds  venomous  plants  unknown  to  Europe  ; 
among  others  the  antjar,  or  Antiaris  toxicaria,  of  Sesche- 
nault,  and  the  famous  upas,  whose  mortal  effects  have 
been  celebrated  by  the  poets.  Even  in  the  briefest 
sketch  of  the  flora  of  Java  one  must  mention  the  graceful 
nepenthes  and  the  gay  begonias,  which  have  long  since 
been  acclimatised  under  English  skies. 

VI 

The  fauna  of  Java  is  even  richer  than  those  of  Sumatra 
and  Borneo,  with  the  easily  appreciated  difference  that  it 
is  less  formidable  to  man.  Java  can  boast  neither  of  the 
elephant,  nor  the  tapir,  nor  the  orang-outang,  but  it  still 
contains  a certain  number  of  rhinoceros,  black  and 
spotted  leopards,  and — especially  in  the  centre  of  the 


56 


JAVA 


island — there  are  tigers,  whose  ravages  are  still  consider- 
able. Lightning  and  the  tigers  are  the  two  greatest 
terrors  of  the  Javanese ; he  speaks  of  them  only  with 
fearful  respect ; their  victims  amount  to  hundreds  each 
year  : yet  the  natives  abstain  from  any  systematic  cam- 
paign against  the  tigers,  despite  the  terror  which  they 
inspire,  because  the  destruction  of  the  tigers  results,  in 
their  experience,  in  the  advent  of  herds  of  wild  pigs, 
which  ruin  the  crops.  The  great  wild  bull,  or  banteng 
( Bos  sondiacus,  M.  and  Schleg.),  is  still  found  in  Java  ; 
there  are  no  less  than  four  varieties  of  pig,  immense 
herds  of  deer  and  of  antelopes,  and  the  wonderful  East 
Indian  fawn,  the  dwarf  deer,  or  mouse  deer,  the  most 
graceful  little  creature  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Among 
the  domestic  animals  we  must  mention  the  buffalo,  or 
kerbau,  the  bullock  ( sapi ),  the  pig  ( babi ),  the  goat 
(kambing),  which  is  found  in  the  most  miserable  kam- 
pongs  (villages),  the  sheep,  the  dog,  and  the  cat. 

The  birds  of  Java,  many  of  which  are  clad  in  the  most 
brilliant  plumage,  do  not  number  more  than  270  species, 
of  which  forty  are  peculiar  to  the  island.  Ducks,  and  the 
wild  cock,  peacocks,  pigeons,  and  pheasants  abound,  not 
to  speak  of  the  kingfishers,  parakeets,  ant-eaters,  and 
birds  of  paradise.  The  peacock  is  the  object  of  a certain 
amount  of  aversion,  because  the  natives  believe  that  a 
troop  of  peacocks  reveals  the  approach  of  the  tiger, 
whom  they  follow  in  his  hunting.1 

The  dugong  and  the  cachalot  are  often  seen  along  the 
coast ; crocodiles  also  are  common,  and  the  rich  vegeta- 
tion of  Java  conceals  a great  variety  of  snakes,  many  of 
which  are  far  more  dangerous  to  man  than  the  dreaded 
tiger. 

The  aquatic  fauna,  whether  marine  or  otherwise,  is 
extremely  rich,  and  for  the  native  is  an  important  source 
of  food  and  prosperity,  as  we  shall  see  when  we  come  to 
study  the  native’s  life. 

1 It  is  supposed  by  the  Javanese  that  the  peacock  eats  the 
intestinal  worms  of  the  tiger’s  victims. 


T1GER-ISAITING,  JAVA. 


CHAPTER  IV 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  OF  JAVA 

I.  The  seventeen  Residencies. — The  western  Residencies  : Bantam, 
Batavia,  Cheribon,  the  Preangers. — II.  The  central  Residencies  : 
Pekalongan,  Samarang,  Banjumas,  Kedu. — III.  Kedu  and  Boro- 
Budur. — IV.  The  Vorstenlanden,  or  Principalities,  Surakarta  and 
Djokjakarta. — V.  Rembang,  Madiun. — VI.  The  Residencies  of 
the  East : Surabaja,  Kediri,  Pasuruan,  Besuki,  and  Madura. 


I. 

The  immense  area  of  Java  and  Madura  was,  until  1900, 
divided  into  twenty-two  Residencies  or  Provinces,  which 
have  since  been  reduced  to  seventeen ; partly  as  a 
measure  of  centralisation,  but  still  more  as  a matter  of 
administrative  economy.  Two  of  these,  in  the  centre  of 
Java,  have  retained  an  apparent  independence ; one 
under  a Snsnhunan,1  and  the  other  under  a Sultan. 
These  are  known  as  the  Vorstenlanden,  or  Principalities  : 
Surakarta  and  Djokjakarta. 

The  first  Residency  in  Java,  starting  from  the  western 
extremity  of  the  island,  is  that  of  Bantam  ; which, 
after  having  been  the  most  flourishing  of  all,  is 
to-day  perhaps  the  poorest.  Bantam,  the  capital  of 
the  old  Sultanate  of  Bantam,  was  indeed  the  centre 
of  the  Dutch  power  until  the  foundation  of  Batavia, 
being  better  situated,  at  the  crossing  of  the  mari- 
time highways,  and  having  a better  protected  road- 

1 Or,  being  abridged,  sunan.  A title  which,  in  ancient  Javanese, 
more  or  less  precisely  signifies  “his  Holiness”;  it  used  to  be  given 
only  to  princes  who  united  in  their  hands  both  the  spiritual  and  the 
temporal  powers. 


57 


58 


JAVA 


stead.  Bantam,  for  nearly  fifty  years,  was  the  great 
European  port ; to-day  it  is  only  a poor  native  town, 
living  by  a small  trade  in  fruits  and  agricultural  pro- 
ducts with  Batavia,  and,  on  the  other  side  of  the  strait, 
with  its  Sumatrese  neighbours  of  the  Lampong  country. 
Of  the  strangers  who  visit  the  city  many,  if  they  are 
Malays  or  Mahomedan  Chinese,  go  there  out  of  venera- 
tion for  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  mosque,  and  the  tombs 
of  the  Imams  ; while  the  Europeans  bestow  a glance  on 
the  ruins  of  the  seventeenth-century  factories,  or  the 
memorials  of  the  first  pioneers  of  European  civilisation, 
who  sleep  in  a cemetery  as  green  as  a garden.  For  a few 
years  Anjer  succeeded  Bantam  as  the  centre  of  the  Dutch 
trade  and  life  ; in  1883  it  was  devastated  by  the  so-called 
tidal  wave  which  followed  the  eruption  of  Krakatoa,  and 
was  unable  to  recover.  Even  the  seat  of  the  Residency 
was  moved  to  Tjilegon,  and  the  supremacy  of  Bantam 
passed  to  the  neighbouring  province. 

This  was  only  reasonable;  for  the  Residency  of  Bantam 
contains  only  850,000  inhabitants,  while  that  of  Batavia 
counts  nearly  2^  millions.  Batavia — and  the  city  seems 
to  be  gradually  absorbing  the  province — is  still,  despite 
the  efforts  of  Surabaja  and  Samarang,  the  capital  of 
Java,  of  the  whole  Dutch  East  Indies,  the  essentially 
European  city.  It  owes  less  to  its  climate,  which,  owing 
to  the  low  altitude,  is  only  too  often  stiflingly  hot,  or 
to  the  beauty  of  its  landscapes,  which  must  be  sought  at 
Buitenzorg,  some  twenty  miles  inland,  and  which  are 
inferior  to  those  of  the  Preangers,  than  to  the  plexus 
of  human  lives  which  it  has  somehow  gathered  about  it  ; 
the  picturesqueness  of  its  old  quarters  ; the  gay  splendour 
of  the  new  city,  and  its  background  of  more  than  a 
century  of  European  civilisation. 

Batavia  is  no  upstart ; it  has  its  aristocratic  quarters, 
its  old  traditions,  which  date  back  to  the  year  1619,  when 
the  Dutch  built  the  city  upon  the  site  of  the  native 
Djakatra.  To-day  it  spreads  out  for  a distance  of  twelve 
miles  ; and  if  its  extent  seems  out  of  proportion  to  its 
population,  which  in  1909  was  138,000,  we  must  not 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  59 


forget  that  Batavia,  besides  the  old  city,  contains  the  new 
city  with  its  wealthy  quarter  of  Weltevreden  (Well  Con- 
tent), and  also  Tandjong  Priok,  which  is  the  shipping 
quarter  of  Batavia.  To  be  logical,  we  ought  really  to 
include  Meester  Cornelis  (33,990  inhabitants,  of  whom 
1,700  are  Europeans),  Buitenzorg  ( Sans-sonci , 33,400 
inhabitants),  the  seat  of  the  Government,  Tanggerang 
(4,454  inhabitants),  and  even  Bekasi,  with  its  bustling 
Chinese  bazaars  and  charming  country  villas.  The 
centre  of  this  complex  organism  is  old  Batavia,  built 
upon  the  right  bank  of  the  Tji  Liwong  : showing,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  channel,  the  four  bastions  of  the  citadel, 
which  is  situated  upon  a small  island.  Nature  has  over- 
come these  defences  more  easily  than  man ; for,  following 
upon  a series  of  volcanic  eruptions,  the  canals  of  Batavia 
were  choked  with  ashes,  while  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the 
river  slowly  separated  the  city  from  the  sea,  until  to-day 
they  are  parted  by  a distance  of  nearly  two  miles.  The 
stagnation  of  the  water  in  the  canals,  and  the  proximity 
of  a coast-line  which  was  always  in  process  of  formation 
and  always  half  a swamp,  continued  to  make  old  Batavia 
so  unhealthy  that  the  colonists  decided  to  abandon  their 
houses  : those  eighteenth-century  red-brick  gabled  houses 
which  were  like  a corner  of  Holland  amidst  the  exotic 
foliage ; tourists  still  visit  the  quarter  to  admire  them,  but 
they  are  occupied  now  only  as  offices,  or  by  Chinese  or 
natives,  whose  kampongs  are  huddled  together  in  the  most 
picturesque  but  evil-smelling  medley,  amidst  the  old 
decaying  houses ; close  to  the  mangroves  of  the  shifting 
shore-line,  a constant  breeding-place  of  dangerous  fevers. 

The  Dutch,  in  their  greater  wisdom,  have  removed 
their  port  to  Tandjong  Priok,  some  six  and  a quarter 
miles  beyond  the  old  city,  and  their  dwelling-houses  to 
Weltevreden,  which  is  a mile  or  two  south  of  the  old 
Batavia,  standing  upon  a slight  eminence  which  preserves 
it  from  the  marshy  miasmata,  and  allows  the  residents 
occasionally  to  enjoy  the  sea-breeze. 

Tandjong  Priok  is  situated  on  the  great  bay  of  Batavia, 
which  lies  between  Cape  Untung  Djawa  and  Krawang 


60 


JAVA 


Point.  The  harbour  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  the 
highest  tonnage.  The  roadstead  has  a length  of  twenty- 
four  miles  and  a width  of  eight ; the  harbour  proper  is 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Tji  Liwong.  The  outer  harbour 
is  enclosed  between  two  gigantic  jetties  of  hewn  stone, 
25  feet  in  width  at  the  top  : it  is  2,000  yards  wide,  and 
the  opening  has  a width  of  136  feet.  The  inner  basin, 
which  is  surrounded  by  quays  for  trading-vessels,  has  a 
length  of  1,210  yards,  a width  of  190  yards,  and  a depth  of 
25  feet. 

The  quay  itself,  which  is  8 ft.  2 in.  above  low  water, 
extends  for  a distance  of  1,100  yards.  The  harbour 
contains  a dry  dock,  graving  and  careening  slips,  a coaling 
station,  building  slips  ; all  the  equipment,  in  short,  of 
a modern  port.  A good  road,  a canal,  and  a railway 
unite  it  with  Batavia.  The  cost  of  the  harbour  was 
26J  million  florins — about  ^3,000,000  ; and  it  is  the  site 
of  a considerable  trade  in  coffee,  sugar,  indigo,  quinine, 
and  copra,  which  it  exports,  receiving  in  return  an 
enormous  quantity  of  manufactured  articles,  particularly 
from  Holland,  England,  and  Germany. 

Tandjong  Priok  represents  the  wealth  and  activity 
of  Batavia.  Weltevreden,  the  new  city,  is  the  symbol 
of  its  luxury,  with  its  vast,  sumptuous  avenues,  its 
magnificent  gardens,  which  give  the  whole  quarter  the 
aspect  of  a wonderful  park,  with  a sprinkling  of  houses 
whose  simple,  almost  rustic  architecture,  adds  yet  another 
charm  to  all  this  natural  beauty.  One  scarcely  notices 
them  at  first  on  passing  through  the  splendid  avenues, 
so  well  are  they  concealed  by  the  exuberant  tropical 
vegetation. 

The  centre  of  the  city  is  Koningsplein,  an  immense 
rectangular  space  twice  as  large  as  the  Champ  de  Mars 
in  Paris.  Here  towards  nine  o’clock  each  evening  the 
Dutch  ladies  and  a few  handsome  half-castes  take  the 
air  ; sometimes  on  foot,  but  more  often  driving  ; wear- 
ing their  most  fashionable  frocks,  but  nearly  always  bare- 
headed ; a custom  by  which  beauty  gains  if  European 
etiquette  suffers.  This  graceful  fashion,  thanks  to  the 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  61 


influence  of  snobbery,  shows  signs  of  disappearing.  The 
four  sides  of  the  Koningsplein  are  bordered  by  the 
wealthier  private  houses,  standing  behind  groups  of  trees  ; 
here,  too,  is  the  huge  and  somewhat  heavy  palace  of  the 
Governor-General,  and  the  archaeological  and  ethno- 
graphical museum  of  the  Society  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
of  Batavia,  which  was  founded  in  1778,  and  whose 
publications  1 are  a mine  of  precious  information  con- 
cerning the  East  Indies. 

The  Koningsplein  is  connected  by  Willemslaan  to  the 
Waterlooplein,  which  seems  small  in  comparison  with 
the  former,  although  it  would  still  seem  immense  in 
Europe  ; but  it  is  as  green  and  enchanting  as  the  larger 
place,  although  somewhat  unfortunately  marred  by  a 
rather  miserable  monument  in  memory  of  Waterloo,  a 
statue  of  Jan  Coen,  the  founder  of  Batavia  in  1619,  and 
an  iron  pyramid  to  the  memory  of  the  brave  General 
Michiels  : none  of  which  can  be  regarded  as  an  artistic 
success.  The  Waterlooplein  is  overlooked  by  the  palace 
of  the  Colonial  Office  (Colonial  Services)  and  the  grace- 
ful Catholic  cathedral. 

The  sight  of  the  entire  city,  outspread  in  the  midst  of 
its  wonderful  gardens,  has  none  of  that  utilitarian  ugli- 
ness with  which  the  agglomeration  of  second-rate  build- 
ings and  an  over-driven  existence  deface  our  modern 
European  cities.  In  the  remote  background,  at  a 
respectful  distance,  and  hidden  by  their  enclosures  of 
cabbage  and  coco-palms,  are  the  kampongs  of  the  natives, 
which  are  drawn  like  a motley  girdle  round  stately 
Weltevreden,  which  pushes  its  villas  in  brick  and  wood 
on  the  one  hand  along  the  canal  which  runs  from  that 
quarter  to  old  Batavia,  while  on  the  other  hand  the 
villas  reach  as  far  as  the  overgrown  village  of  Meester 
Cornells  (33,900  inhabitants),  an  entertaining  mixture  of 
European  bungalows,  the  houses  of  wealthy  Chinese, 
and  dirty  native  quarters,  swarming  with  life  and  colour. 

One  cannot  speak  of  Batavia  without  the  immediate 

1 Bataviaasch  Genootschap  van  Kunsten  en  Wdenschappen : Verhande- 
lingen,  Tijdschri/t,  Nolulen. 


62 


JAVA 


thought  of  Buitenzorg,  which  prides  itself  upon  being 
the  motive  centre,  the  brain  almost,  of  Batavia.  It 
stands  twenty  miles  from  the  capital,  on  a site  which  is 
infinitely  more  healthy  and  more  beautiful ; a leafy  hill 
of  870  feet  in  height,  which  overlooks  the  valley  of  the 
Tji  Liwong  and  the  Tji  Dani,  while  beyond  it  are  incom- 
parable views  of  Gedei  and  Salak,  the  two  great  volcanoes. 
Buitenzorg,  known  in  Javanese  as  Bogor,  boasts  of  a 
botanical  garden  unique  in  the  world  ; to  speak  precisely 
it  is  rather  a botanical  institute,  as  the  most  perfectly 
equipped  laboratories  are  combined  with  the  most 
wonderful  collection  of  tropical  plants  that  any  naturalist 
could  dream  of,  enclosed  in  a frame  to  delight  the  heart 
of  a painter  or  poet.  In  this  peculiarly  moist,  warm 
climate — for  at  Buitenzorg  it  rains  every  day  from  two 
to  seven  in  the  afternoon — the  vegetation  shows  an 
extraordinary  development  and  variety.  More  than  ten 
thousand  species  of  plants  are  here  assembled  : coco- 
palms,  cabbage-palms,  palms  of  all  varieties,  eucalyptus  and 
the  red  jasmine,  all  intermingled  with  a grace  and  vigour 
peculiar  to  the  place,  for  on  this  favoured  soil  they  attain 
an  unexampled  development,  particularly  as  to  height. 
The  Botanical  Garden  of  Buitenzorg  has  evaded  both 
the  deliberate  disorder  of  a virgin  forest,  in  which  the 
tangled  exuberance  of  vegetation  produces  a disconcert- 
ing impression  of  discomfort,  and  the  too  strictly  formal 
order  of  the  classical  botanical  garden  ; Art  has  helped 
Nature  with  a loving  tact,  and  the  rarest  species  grow  in 
a happy  liberty,  blending  in  the  most  harmonious 
manner  with  one  another  and  with  the  distant  back- 
ground of  a perfect  landscape.1 

A visit  to  the  Botanical  Garden  of  Buitenzorg  is  as  great 
a pleasure  to  the  mere  traveller  as  to  the  scientist,  although 
perhaps  for  different  reasons  ; but  the  gardens  are  not 
the  only  attraction  which  the  Europeans  of  Java  find  in 

1 There  is  an  excellent  Notice  stir  letat  aciuel  de  I'lnstitut  by  its 
one-time  Director,  Dr.  Treub,  in  s’  Lands  Plantentuin,  Bulletin  de 
I'lnstitut  botanique  de  Buitenzorg,  No.  1.  (Buitenzorg,  printed  at 
the  Institute,  1898,  8vo.) 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  63 


this  charming  town.  It  is  at  Buitenzorg,  in  a palace 
surrounded  with  flowers,  lawns,  and  groups  of  trees, 
such  as  might  be  the  envy  of  any  royal  residence  in 
Europe,  that  the  Governor-General  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  resides,  the  representative  of  the  executive  power 
in  the  colony.  Since  1774  the  Governors  have  been 
used  to  seek  a refreshing  air  and  a little  repose  in  this 
well-named  hill-station — Buitenzorg,  the  Care-free,  Sans- 
Souci ; there  they  built  a country  villa,  and  finally 
appreciated  the  place  so  well  that  they  transported 
thither  the  entire  Secretariat-General ; and  since  then 
the  eyes  of  all  the  officials  in  Java  have  been  turned 
towards  Buitenzorg,  the  source  of  all  executive  orders, 
and  also  of  promotion.  The  Europeans  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, whether  merchants  or  planters,  learned  in  their 
turn  of  the  reviving  effects  of  Buitenzorg ; and  while  the 
Government  established  a hospital  there  for  those  con- 
valescent from  beri-beri,  they  flocked  there  every  year  for 
a stay  of  several  months,  so  that  in  spite  of  its  entirely 
official  character  the  town  is  full  of  visitors  coming  and 
going. 

Puwokarta,  and  Krawang,  the  old  Cravaon  of  the 
Portuguese,  formerly  itself  the  capital  of  a suppressed 
Residency  of  the  same  name  {connected  by  rail  with 
Meester  Cornelis  and  Batavia,  but  without  gaining  much 
thereby),  are  the  only  two  district  capitals  worth  mention- 
ing in  the  province  of  Batavia. 

The  Residency  or  province  of  Cheribon  or  Tjiribon 
contains  some  large  villages  and  markets,  but  no  city 
worthy  of  remark  by  reason  either  of  its  population  or 
activity,  excepting  the  capital  of  the  same  name.  The 
city  of  Cheribon  (23,450  inhabitants)  on  the  Tji-Ribon, 
or  river  of  crayfish,  to  which  it  owes  its  name,  is  a 
picturesque  old  town,  in  which  the  European,  Chinese, 
Arab,  and  Javanese  quarters  strike  each  its  characteristic 
note.  It  might,  on  this  muddy,  indefinite  sea-coast, 
have  become  a port  of  some  importance,  had  not  the 
coral  reefs  rendered  its  roadstead  unsafe.  It  is,  how- 
ever, a place  of  pilgrimage  for  many  fervent  Arab, 


64 


JAVA 


Malay,  or  Javanese  Mahomedans,  who  go  thither  to 
venerate  the  tomb  of  the  Susuhunan  Gunang  Djati, 
the  founder  of  Cheribon,  and  one  of  the  great  propa- 
gandists of  Islam  in  Java.  His  remote  descendants 
live  not  far  from  this  holy  but  somewhat  dilapidated 
object,  in  a kraton  (palace)  full  of  a rather  tawdry 
luxury,  subsisting  on  a very  comfortable  pension  paid 
them  by  the  Dutch  Government. 

The  Residency  of  the  Preangers,  which  is  to  the  south 
of  Bantam,  Batavia,  and  Cheribon,  and  with  them  consti- 
tutes the  eastern  division  of  Java,  surpasses  them  all  in 
extent,  population,  and  natural  beauty.  It  contains  no 
less  than  8,178  square  miles,  and  2,435,500  inhabitants, 
of  whom  some  4,000  are  Europeans.  There  are  few 
large  towns  excepting  Bandung,  the  capital,  but  a host 
of  kampongs  : great  overgrown  villages,  built  amid  the 
most  luxuriant  vegetation,  on  the  most  incomparable 
sites.  Enthusiastic  travellers,  struck  by  the  marvellous 
light  and  the  fresh  green  of  the  Javanese  foliage,  have 
called  the  fortunate  island  a terrestrial  paradise.  If  it  be 
so,  then  the  Preangers  should  be  the  paradise  of  this 
paradise.  Here  too — a fact  not  to  be  disdained — are 
the  finest  plantations  of  coffee,  tea,  quinine,  and  sugar- 
cane to  be  found  in  the  East  Indies.  If  only  this 
province  did  not  face  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  forms 
the  whole  of  its  southern  boundary,  it  is  probable  that 
the  productive  value  of  the  Preangers  would  be  doubled ; 
but  the  depth  of  the  water  makes  the  construction  of 
harbours  or  artificial  roadsteads  impossible. 

Bandung,  which  since  1864  has  been  the  capital  of 
the  province,  is  a very  pleasant  town,  nestling  amidst 
its  trees,  at  a height  of  2,300  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
grows,  so  to  speak,  while  one  watches  it,  but  without 
losing  any  of  its  beauty.  In  1893  it  contained  only 
23,800  inhabitants ; to-day  there  are  47,470,  of  whom 
2,200  are  Europeans. 

Garut  and  Sukabumi,  connected  with  Bandung  by  the 
railway,  are,  from  the  European  point  of  view,  simply 
sanatoria,  installed  in  the  midst  of  Javanese  native  life, 


THE  KALI  MAS,  SURABAJA. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  65 


in  a delightful  climate.  Sukabumi  (Place  of  Delights) 
has  over  15,000  inhabitants,  but  only  588  are  Europeans, 
exclusive  of  the  convalescents  whom  the  State  sends  up 
year  by  year  to  the  establishment  built  for  that  end. 
The  Dutch  Government  has  installed  two  other  sanatoria 
in  the  Residency  of  Preanger  : one  at  Tegal-laga,  near 
Bandung,  and  one  at  Sindanglaja. 

Formerly  many  East  Indian  officials,  having  retired 
upon  their  pensions,  came  to  end  their  lives  under  the 
trees  of  Sukabumi  ; to-day  they  return  more  willingly 
to  die  in  their  native  country. 

Garut,  at  a height  of  2,300  feet,  more  sparsely  peopled 
than  Sukabumi,  is  almost  as  attractive,  by  reason  of  its 
climate  and  its  individual  charm.  Formerly  a holy  city, 
forbidden  to  Europeans,  it  is  now  more  and  more 
frequented  by  foreigners. 


II. 

Central  Java  comprises  the  Residencies  of  Pekalongan, 
Samarang,  Banjumas,  Kedu,  Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta, 
Rembang,  and  Madiun.  The  first  two  Residencies  are 
situated  on  the  Java  Sea,  and  absorb  the  commercial 
products  of  the  other  four  on  their  way  to  the  outer 
world. 

The  province  of  Pekalongan,  despite  its  three  small 
ports — Brebes,  Tegal,  and  Pemalang  (20,920  inhabitants) 
— contains  only  one  important  town  : the  capital,  Peka- 
longan (41,720  inhabitants),  which  is  built  upon  both 
banks  of  the  River  Pekalongan.  The  houses  of  the 
European  quarter  are  built  on  the  left  bank,  along  an 
avenue  of  magnificent  canary-trees  and  tamarinds.  This 
quarter,  which  is  well  away  from  the  native  and  Chinese 
quarters,  boasts  of  the  inevitable  “ plein,”  place,  or 
promenade,  with  its  administrative  offices,  the  Residency, 
and  the  Protestant  Church  ; and  not  far  off  is  the 
customary  aloun-aloun,1  with  the  mosque  and  the 

1 The  aloun-aloun  is  the  public  place,  the  centre  of  official 
native  life,  just  as  the  “plein”  is  the  centre  of  European  life.  It 

6 


66 


JAVA 


Regent’s  palace.  The  Chinese,  even  more  than  the 
Arabs,  hold  in  their  hands  the  greater  part  of  the 
retail  trade  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  indeed  of  the 
whole  coast  ; at  Tegal  they  even  profess  to  have 
been  established  since  the  tenth  century. 

The  Residency  of  Samarang  far  surpasses  that  of  Peka- 
longan  by  the  number  of  its  towns  and  their  activity  and 
density  of  population.  Kudus,  Salatiga,  Kendal,  Japara, 
and  Pati  all  contain  from  ten  thousand  to  thirty  thousand 
inhabitants.  Samarang,  the  capital  (96,660  inhabitants, 
of  whom  5,126  are  Europeans),  is  one  of  the  three 
great  commercial  centres  of  the  island,  ranking  with 
Batavia  and  Surabaja.  The  city  has  developed  rapidly 
since  the  proclamation  of  free  labour,  and  has  become 
one  of  the  great  depots  of  the  products  of  the  country  : 
coffee,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar,  and  rice. 

Another  cause  of  prosperity  has  been  the  construction 
of  railways  running  from  the  coast  to  the  Principalities, 
or  Vorstenlanden,  of  Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta,  which 
has  enabled  Samarang  to  attract  nearly  all  the  trade  of 
Central  Java.  The  improvement  of  the  port  has  made  it 
more  accessible,  although  it  does  not  make  up  for  the 
absence  of  a safe  and  capacious  roadstead,  which  would 
be  worth  a large  fortune  to  the  city.  The  city  itself  is 
built  on  the  two  banks  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  insignifi- 
cant river  of  the  same  name  ; its  only  interest  lies  in  the 
continual  movements  of  the  lighters  towards  the  ships, 
and  the  magnificent  sunshine  which  never  fails  the  East 
Indian  landscape.  The  old  city,  built,  by  a natural  and 
pathetic  fallacy,  in  the  Dutch  manner — its  two-story 
houses  crowded  together  in  the  narrow  streets,  without 
the  ventilation  of  large  gardens — is  so  insupportably  hot 
that  all  who  have  been  able  to  desert  it  have  done  so  ; 
it  is  used  now  only  for  stores  and  warehouses,  and,  in 
the  more  habitable  quarters,  for  barracks  and  orphan 
asylums.  The  Europeans  have  taken  refuge  on  the  road 

is  almost  always  a great  grassy  square  or  oblong,  planted  with 
enormous  banyans,  which  trees  are  greatly  venerated  by  the 
Hindus  and  the  Javanese. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  67 


to  Bondjong  and  Pontjol  (two  quarters  of  the  new  city), 
which  stand  a little  higher  than  the  surrounding  plain. 
There  they  have  built  their  white  villas,  shaded  by  tall 
trees.  A magnificent  avenue  of  tamarind-trees  connects 
Bondjong  with  the  aloun-aloun,  the  central  public  square 
of  every  native  town,  where  the  Government  offices,  the 
Residency,  the  town  hall,  indeed  all  the  official  buildings, 
are  grouped  about  its  green  expanse.  More  interesting 
still  to  the  traveller  is  the  Chinese  quarter,  which  is  built 
upon  the  Samarang  River,  a little  way  above  the  city,  and 
is  almost  as  picturesque  as  it  is  dirty  ; or  the  houses  of 
the  Javanese  kampong,  scattered  among  the  coco-palms, 
or  along  the  roads,  or  on  the  banks  of  the  canal,  accord- 
ing to  the  occupations  of  the  inhabitants.  At  a quarter 
of  an  hour’s  distance,  to  the  south  of  Samarang,  and  on 
the  first  slopes  of  the  mountain,  is  the  suburb  of  Tjandi, 
which  is  rich  in  the  ruins  of  Hindu  temples,  to  which 
the  natives  still  bring  their  humble  offerings  of  flowers 
and  fruits.  Not  far  from  here  the  Europeans  are  begin- 
ning to  build,  as  it  is  cooler  than  in  Samarang  itself. 
Well  provided  with  roads,  canals,  railways,  steam  tram- 
ways, and  steamship  lines,  active  and  enterprising, 
Samarang  is  wealthy  rather  than  attractive. 

Its  opulent  aspect  is  a contrast  to  the  semi-poverty 
of  its  neighbour  Demak,  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
powerful  State,  and  not  long  ago  the  capital  of  a Resi- 
dency which  is  now  simply  a district  of  the  Residency 
of  Samarang.  Situated  in  a cool  and  luxuriant  valley, 
Demak  has  to-day  only  5,250  inhabitants ; despite  the 
line  of  steam  trams  which  connects  it  with  Samarang 
and  Joana,1  it  vegetates  miserably.  Yet  here,  in  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century,  was  founded  a dynasty 
of  Musulman  princes,  fervent  propagandists  of  Islam, 
whose  turbulent  proselytism  made  them  for  a time  the 
moral  rulers  of  Central  Java.  One  of  them — a very  holy 
but  also  a very  ambitious  man — Raden  Patah,  built,  it 

* Or  rather  Djoewana.  Joana  is  an  English  spelling,  often  used 
by  preference,  as  in  the  expression  Samar ang-Joana-Stoomtr am  = 
Samarang  and  Joana  Steam  Tramway. 


68 


JAVA 


is  said,  the  city  mosque,  which  is  celebrated  throughout 
Java,  and  was  completed  in  1468.  In  1845  it  had  to  be 
rebuilt ; but  care  was  taken  to  preserve  in  the  new 
structure  some  sculptured  columns,  venerable  relics  of 
the  old.  From  Demak  issued,  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  religious  and  political  movement 
which  banded  together  the  petty  Musulman  princes  of 
the  north  coast  of  Java  for  the  purpose  of  annihilating 
the  great  Indo-Javanese  kingdom  of  Madjapahit.  At 
their  head,  justly  enough,  was  Raden  Patah,  son  or 
grandson,  so  it  was  said,  of  the  Sultan  of  Madjapahit, 
who  wished  at  one  blow  to  avenge  an  injury  done  to 
his  mother  and  to  secure  the  triumph  of  Islam.  He 
succeeded : the  Arab  supplanted  the  Hindu  civilisa- 
tion throughout  the  island  ; but  two  centuries  later  the 
Dutch  laid  hands  upon  the  warlike  petty  princes  and 
their  territory.  Further  decimated  in  1848  by  a terrible 
famine,  Demak  lingers  rather  than  lives. 

Kudus,  better  advised,  has  preserved,  with  a religious 
respect,  the  minaret  of  its  ancient  mosque,  and  the 
famous  tomb  of  its  eminently  holy  founder,  the  Pan- 
geran  Kudus.1  But  it  has  not  allowed  its  material 
interests  to  suffer  ; it  has  left  the  ancient  city  to  the 
memories  of  its  historic  past,  and  has  built  beside  it  a 
new  city,  which  is  completely  modern,  although  purely 
in  the  native  style.  The  wooden  dwellings  are  neater, 
cleaner,  and  more  graceful  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  island  ; their  faqades,  delicately  carved,  are  famous 
through  all  Java.  It  is  to  this  charming  town  that  the 
inhabitants  of  Kudus,  energetic  brokers  and  carriers  of 
produce,  return  after  scouring  the  country  from  one 
end  to  another,  sometimes  for  years  together,  in  order 
to  take  their  well-earned  rest  and  enjoy  the  fruits  of 
their  labour. 

Salatiga  contains  an  almost  equally  industrious  popu- 
lation, and  enjoys  a delightful  climate,  which  has  led 
to  the  erection  of  a sanatorium. 

Ambarawa,  in  a steep,  marshy  valley  of  the  volcano 
1 Pangeran  = Lord  or  Prince. 


GRIMM'S  RESTAURANT,  SURABAJA. 


THE  OLD  SIMPANG  CLUB,  SURABAJA. 


To  lace  p.  68. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  69 


Merbabu,  is  merely  a fortress,  originally  intended  to 
bridle  the  Sultans  of  Surakarta  and  Djokjakarta,  and 
to  prevent  their  making  raids  upon  the  Dutch  posses- 
sions on  the  coast.  It  is,  above  all,  an  example  of 
Dutch  tenacity,  its  utility  to-day  being  practically  nil. 
Commenced  about  1837,  it  was  built  of  human  lives, 
for  the  builders  had  to  fight  three  enemies  : the  marsh 
fever;  the  treacherous,  muddy  water,  which  would  sud- 
denly sweep  away  work  and  workers ; and  finally  an 
eruption  of  Merbabu,  which  in  July,  1867,  when  the 
work  was  apparently  completed,  cracked  or  destroyed 
the  whole  structure.  Worse  still : at  the  end  of  nume- 
rous periods  of  forced  labour,  to  which  the  unhappy 
inhabitants  of  the  country  had  been  compelled,  a terrible 
famine  broke  out,  as  the  peasants  had  been  unable  to 
sow  and  to  cultivate  their  rice-fields.  Ambarawa,  created 
by  the  will  of  the  metropolis,  according  to  the  plans  of 
the  metropolis,  in  obedience  also  to  its  remote  brutality, 
was  one  of  the  last  great  moral  mistakes  of  the  Dutch. 
It  would  always  have  been  quite  insufficient  to  stand 
against  good  artillery  ; and  although  it  instilled  a salu- 
tary terror  in  the  hearts  of  the  neighbouring  populations, 
it  also  left  them  with  a dangerous  sense  of  unforgiving 
resentment. 

The  Residency  of  Banjumas,  to  the  south  of  that  of 
Samarang,  is  important  on  account  of  its  situation  rather 
than  its  economic  importance.  It  is  of  value  in  that  it 
helps  to  divide  the  formerly  formidable  Principalities  from 
the  turbulent  Residency  of  the  Preangers.  Banjumas, 
its  capital,  in  spite  of  its  rather  high-flown  name  (Golden 
Water),  is  a second-rate  village  of  5,795  inhabitants. 
The  principal  towns  of  the  district  are : Purwokerto 
(13,768  inhabitants),  Probolinggo  (13,237),  and  Band- 
jernagara  (5,875),  which  are  scarcely  more  lively. 

The  only  exception  is  Tjilatjap,  the  great  commercial 
and  military  port  of  the  south.  Tjilatjap  is  built  in 
modern  fashion,  and  is  laid  out  in  a very  symmetrical 
manner,  with  huge,  shady  avenues — almost  too  huge, 
in  fact,  for  the  city  scarcely  seems  likely  to  realise  the 


70 


JAVA 


hopes  that  were  conceived  of  it,  and  this  for  two  reasons  : 
both  the  climate  and  the  nature  of  the  soil,  which  are 
closely  connected,  are  unfavourable.  It  is  built  upon 
a dried-up  swamp,  beside  a muddy  coast  which  bristles 
with  coral ; it  is  extremely  unhealthy  during  the  western 
monsoon,  being  then  invaded  by  the  poisonous  exhala- 
tions of  the  shore  ; the  south-western  monsoon,  which 
brings  the  sea-breeze,  renders  it  somewhat  more  healthy. 

The  malaria  endemic  in  Tjilatjap  has  the  peculiarity 
that  its  worst  effects  are  felt  only  after  leaving  the  place ; 
it  undermines  the  constitution  of  the  resident,  but  he  is 
hardly  aware  of  his  condition.  It  is,  nevertheless,  so 
deadly  a complaint  that  Tjilatjap  has  been  called  “the 
European  cemetery,”  and  the  Government  has  been 
forced  to  withdraw  its  garrisons. 

The  roadstead,  which  is  very  extensive,  and  capable  of 
floating  large  vessels  at  low  tide,  is  protected  by  a natural 
breakwater  of  coral ; but  the  entrance  is  difficult,  bristling 
with  reefs,  and  is  gradually  becoming  obstructed  by  the 
alluvium  of  the  Tjilatjap,  the  estuary  of  which  it  faces. 
The  muddy  waters  of  the  river  are  already  slowly  filling 
the  great  Gulf  of  Segara  Anakan,  or  the  Sea  of  the 
Children,  and  their  deposits  of  slime  and  ooze  have 
connected  the  island  of  Kambangan  with  the  mainland. 
It  is  to  be  feared  that  in  the  end  they  will  close  the  bar 
rather  than  increase  its  efficiency.  Although  at  the  very 
gates  of  the  fertile  province  of  the  Preangers,  and  by 
nature  fitted  to  be  the  port  and  market  for  the  produce 
of  the  south-east  of  Java  and  a portion  of  the  centre, 
Tjilatjap  will  never  rival  in  growth  the  ports  of  Samarang 
and  Surabaja,  because  it  is  upon  the  Indian  Ocean, 
which  has  no  commercial  future  as  regards  the  Archi- 
pelago. 

III. 

The  Residency  of  Kedu,  bounded  by  Samarang  on  the 
north  and  the  Principality  of  Djokjakarta  on  the  east, 
retains  the  charm  of  a great  past  and  an  indestructible 
natural  beauty.  Situated  in  the  region  of  the  great 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  71 


volcanoes,  backed  by  the  majestic  slopes  of  Sumbing, 
Sindoro,  Merbabu,  and  Merapi,  which  enclose  it  by  a 
crescent-shaped  range,  it  is  full  of  fertile  valleys  of  en- 
chanting beauty.  Its  capital,  Magelang  (28,240  inhabit- 
ants, comprising  723  Europeans  and  2,746  Chinese),  is 
in  the  midst  of  a magnificently  fruitful  plain,  which  has 
been  fertilised  by  the  debris  of  the  volcanoes.  With  its 
abundance  of  clear,  running  water,  and  the  brilliant  fresh 
foliage  of  its  rice-fields,  its  plantations  of  coffee  and 
sugar-cane,  it  gives  the  impression  of  a Garden  of 
Eden,  and  the  delightful  climate  adds  to  the  illusion. 

Purworedjo  (14,205  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the 
sometime  province  of  Bagelen,  has  almost  the  charm  of 
Magelang,  which  is  now  its  administrative  superior.  It 
is  easy  to  understand  that  where  life  is  so  easy  and  so 
pleasant  the  natives  give  but  little  thought  to  other 
things,  and  care  little  about  enriching  themselves,  and 
still  less  about  enriching  their  masters  by  the  unceasing 
cultivation  of  coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  tea,  or  by  joylessly 
labouring  in  the  few  manufactories  or  workshops  which 
have  been  erected  by  the  uncontrollable  energy  of 
Europe.  Nevertheless,  this  Garden  of  Eden  has  known 
a superior  standard  of  life,  has  been  the  seat  of  a 
higher  and  more  stable  civilisation  than  the  neigh- 
bouring provinces,  and  retains  the  vestiges  of  an  art 
that  strikes  us  even  to-day  with  astonishment  and 
admiration. 

Nine  miles  from  Magelang  is  the  Tjandi  Boro-Budur, 
the  Temple  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas — a gigantic  stupa, x 
built  not  upon  a hill  but  around  it,  the  hill  forming  the 
core  of  the  stupa,  and  being  enclosed  by  a series  of 
sculptured  terraces  or  balconies,  which  end  in  a central 
terrace  surmounted  by  a gigantic  dagoba.2  There  are 
no  less  than  nine  stories  or  stages  of  galleries  built 
around  the  huge  core  of  earth  ; the  six  lower  galleries 
are  square,  with  re-entrant  angles,  and  the  three  upper 

1 Sanscrit.  A sacred  tumulus  to  indicate  the  site  of  some  episode 
in  the  life  of  Buddha,  or  enclosing  some  of  his  ashes  or  relics. 

1 A variety  or  modification  of  the  stupa. 


72 


JAVA 


galleries  are  circular,  and  are  surmounted  by  seventy- 
two  open  dagobas  containing  statues  of  Buddha.  From 
the  first  gallery  upwards  the  sustaining  wall  is  covered 
with  bas-reliefs  illustrating  various  episodes  in  the  life 
of  Buddha  ; gargoyles,  as  fantastic  as  any  on  our  Gothic 
cathedrals,  decorate  each  angle ; delicate  schemes  of 
decoration — flowers,  birds,  animals — break  the  monotony 
of  the  gutters  and  run  along  the  cornices.  The  summit 
of  the  monument,  consisting  of  the  three  circular  terraces 
and  the  seventy-two  dagobas,  is  surmounted  by  the 
central  dagoba,  which  also  contains  a statue  of  Buddha, 
and  in  which  some  bronze  statuettes  and  coins  were  dis- 
covered many  years  ago.  Each  side  of  the  structure 
measures  no  less  than  177  yards  (531  feet)  in  length  at 
the  base,  and  the  carvings,  if  set  end  to  end,  would 
measure  3,850  yards,  or  considerably  over  two  miles,  in 
length.  Built  presumably  in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century, 
by  Javanese  working  under  the  inspiration  of  Hindu 
architects,  it  must  once,  according  to  the  legend,  have 
sheltered  in  its  terminal  cupola  a pinch  of  the  revered 
ashes  of  the  Buddha.  It  is  built  without  the  aid  of  lime 
or  mortar,  the  stones  being  jointed  by  means  of  tenons 
and  mortices  and  dovetails  which  bind  them  solidly 
together.  The  material  is  volcanic  lava,  whose  greyish 
tint  enhances  the  imposing  and  melancholy  effect  of  this 
enormous  and  complex  structure — a melancholy  hardly 
enlivened  by  the  most  fantastic  virtuosity  of  the  chisel. 
It  stands  facing  Merapi,  in  a wide  plain  of  slender 
coco-palms,  the  horizon  closed  by  a scattered  range 
of  extinct  volcanoes. 

Only  the  ruins  of  Angkor  Wat,  in  French  Indo-China, 
can  rival  Boro  Budur  in  grandeur.  Hindu  by  inspira- 
tion, like  the  latter,  they  surpass  it  in  point  of  size,  and 
are  perhaps  superior  in  grace,  justness  of  proportion,  and 
delicacy  of  ornamentation. 

The  Dutch  Government,  at  the  repeated  instance  of 
such  scholars  as  the  late  Dr.  J.  L.  A.  Brandes,  and  of 
the  archaeologists,  amongst  whom  we  must  mention 
Dr.  I.  Groneman,  the  founder  of  the  Archaeological 


NATIVE  BOATS,  WILLEMSKERKE,  SURABAJA. 


CHINESE  KAMPOXG,  SURABAJA. 


To  face  p.  72. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  73 


Society  of  Djokjakarta,1  who  has  done  so  much  to 
draw  attention  to  the  Hindo-Javanese  antiquities  of  the 
region,  has  at  last  begun  to  concern  itself  in  the  fate 
of  the  ruins. 

The  high  officials  and  native  princes  who  used  without 
scruple  to  carry  off  statues  and  bas-reliefs  for  the  decora- 
tion of  their  gardens  or  palaces,  and  the  peasants  who, 
with  an  unconscious  vandalism  which  was  at  least  more 
comprehensible,  used  to  carry  off  the  stones  to  be  used  for 
the  most  vulgar  or  trivial  purposes,  have  been  requested 
to  stop  their  depredations.  The  work  of  consolidation  has 
been  put  in  hand,  and  a quite  adequate  pasan-grahan  2 3 
has  been  constructed  at  the  foot  of  the  monument,  so 
that  not  archaeologists  and  artists  only,  but  tourists  from 
all  parts  of  the  world,  to  whom  India  proper  is  to-day 
a little  commonplace,  are  now  able  to  pay  their  respects 
to  the  Temple  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas  without  heroic 
efforts. 

One  may  search  the  western  portion  of  Java  for  the 
vestiges  of  a monument  that  shall  even  distantly  remind 
one  of  Boro  Budur.  Here  dwelt  formerly,  and  here 
is  to-day,  the  centre  of  Javanese  civilisation.  Sixteen 

1 Archceologische  Vereeniging  le  Djokjakarta.  Dr.  Groneman  has 

published  a guide  to  the  ruins  of  Boro  Budur  under  the  title  of 
De  Tjandi  Baraboedoer  op  Midden-Java  (Samarang,  1902,  large  8vo) 
and  many  monographs  on  the  ruins  of  Java. 

3 Pasangrahan,  or  better,  pasanggrahan,  a Javanese  word  signify- 
ing “ hostelry.”  Analogous  to  the  dahk  bungalow  of  India,  and  the 
sala  of  Indo-China,  but  better  equipped  than  the  latter,  the  pasang- 
grahan is  a kind  of  inn  or  hotel  for  the  use  of  officials  on  circuit, 
but  which  extends  its  hospitality  to  travellers  as  well.  It  is  estab- 
lished at  the  cost  of  the  Dutch  Government,  and  kept  up  by  a 
village  headman  ( ijamat ) or  a European  soldier  retired  from  the 
army  of  the  Indies.  The  large  pasangrahans,  in  addition  to  several 
chambers,  provide  provisions  which  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  traveller,  according  to  an  established  tariff.  Others  provide 
primitive  beds  for  the  night,  and  the  means  of  preparing  the 
traveller’s  own  provisions ; or,  if  he  needs  no  more,  the  eggs  and 
rice  procured  in  the  village.  The  tjarnat  also  procures  horses,  for 
the  saddle  or  for  draught,  and  also  guides  and  coolies,  all  according 
to  an  official  tariff. 


74 


JAVA 


miles  from  Boro  Budur,  in  the  princely  capital  of  Djokja- 
karta, and  to  an  even  greater  degree  in  Surakarta,  arose 
the  great  empire  of  Mataram,  of  which  the  whole  race 
preserves  a glorious  and  reverent  memory. 

IV. 

The  Vorstenlanden,  or  Principalities,  bounded  to  the 
north  by  the  Residency  of  Samarang,  to  the  east  by  that 
of  Madiun,  to  the  west  by  Kedu,  and  to  the  south  by  the 
Indian  Ocean,  constitute  the  masterpiece  of  the  Dutch 
colonial  policy,  and  a striking  proof  of  the  skilful 
eclecticism  with  which  the  Dutch  admit  any  form  of 
government,  provided  they  retain  the  reality  of  power. 

The  Vorstenlanden,  or  “Princely  Lands,”  represent  only 
one-fifteenth  of  the  area  of  Java  ; they  are  nominally  inde- 
pendent, and  are  ruled  by  two  princes  : the  Susuhunan 
of  Surakarta  and  the  Sultan  of  Djokjakarta. 

Until  the  last  century  they  were  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Susuhunan,  who,  being  threatened  by  a revolt  of 
the  Chinese  installed  in  his  empire,  called  in  the  Dutch 
to  assist  him.  They  came  promptly,  helped  to  crush  the 
Chinese,  were  handsomely  paid,  and  remained  so  high  in 
the  esteem  of  the  Emperor  Hamangku  that  he  submitted 
to  their  arbitration  in  his  conflict  with  one  of  his  brothers 
who  was  desirous  of  usurping  his  crown. 

The  Dutch,  who  perhaps  were  not  wholly  innocent  of 
complicity  with  the  pretender,  pronounced  a verdict  of  a 
very  satisfactory  nature,  especially  in  view  of  their  future 
intentions.  The  Empire  was  divided  into  two  States  : 
one,  which  comprised  about  two-thirds  of  the  territory, 
remained  under  the  rule  of  the  Susuhunan,  Surakarta 
being  the  capital ; the  other,  with  the  title  of  Sultan  and 
the  capital  of  Djokjakarta,  fell  to  the  lot  of  his  uncle.  In 
principle  the  Sultan  remained  the  vassal  of  the  Susu- 
hunan ; every  year  he  rendered  homage,  with  imposing 
ceremony,  at  Ngawen  near  Djokjakarta,  removing  his 
sandals  and  kneeling  before  his  overlord. 

It  was  so  much  in  the  interests  of  the  Dutch  to  cause 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  75 


division  between  the  two  princes,  that  they  could  not 
allow  this  ceremony  to  be  celebrated  indefinitely  ; for  the 
Javanese  assembled  in  great  numbers,  and  it  afforded  an 
opportunity  for  conspiracy  or  alliance.  It  was  not  diffi- 
cult to  persuade  the  Sultan  that  it  was  humiliating  to  be 
obliged  to  admit  himself  the  inferior  of  the  Susuhunan. 
One  year,  accordingly,  when  the  time  for  the  interview 
came  round,  the  Sultan  presented  himself  at  Ngawen 
wearing  a Dutch  uniform.  In  virtue  of  a principle — as 
stringent  as  the  principle  of  homage — which  in  Java 
forbids  the  kneeling  posture  to  whosoever  has  the  honour 
of  bearing  the  insignia  of  European  military  rank — the 
Sultan  remained  seated  before  the  Susuhunan,  who  left 
full  of  rage  and  confusion. 

The  two  princes  were  at  variance  for  a time,  but  each 
considered  himself  independent  of  the  other,  which  was 
what  the  Dutch  had  desired.  The  latter  adopted  a still 
better  means  of  paralysing  the  enmity  which  both  the 
Sultan  and  the  Susuhunan  bore  them  ; both  at  Surakarta 
and  at  Djokjakarta  a prince  is  installed  in  the  court  of 
the  sovereign  ; both  are  vassals,  yet  independent ; they 
are  entertained  at  the  expense  of  the  sovereign  ; but, 
apart  from  the  formula  of  a vague  homage,  and  their 
enforced  presence  at  certain  court  ceremonies,  they  are 
as  free  in  their  wide  domains  as  are  their  pretended 
masters.  Their  kratons ,r  or  palaces,  stand  beside  those  of 
the  sovereigns  ; each  has,  even  in  a greater  degree  than 
the  latter,  the  right  to  maintain  a private  army  on  the 
European  model,  though  this  is,  of  course,  under  the 
control  of  the  Dutch  Government.  These  two  princes, 
who  in  Surakarta  bear  the  titles  of  Pangeran  Adipati 
Mangku  Negoro,  and  at  Djokjakarta  those  of  Pangeran 
Adipati  Paku  Aiam,  owe  their  power  to  Holland,  and 
hitherto  have  been  absolutely  loyal  and  full  of  feudal 
feeling. 

As  a matter  of  fact  all  four,  the  Susuhunan  included, 
although  he  is  traditionally  by  far  the  most  powerful  of 
all,  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch  Government,  despite 
1 Kraton,  or  karaton,  dwelling  of  a ratu,  or  prince. 


76 


JAVA 


their  sumptuous  appearance  of  independence.  At  Sura- 
karta, as  at  Djokjakarta,  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  real 
master,  the  Resident,  stands  facing  the  royal  kraton  ; and 
a small  fort,  armed  with  artillery,  situated  not  far  away, 
stands  as  a reminder  of  the  Resident’s  actual  power. 
None  of  the  four  princes  can  ascend  the  throne  without 
the  consent  of  the  Resident,  who  often  appoints  him 
according  to  the  choice  of  his  predecessor,  always  respect- 
ing as  far  as  possible  the  national  traditions  and  sus- 
ceptibilities. The  Resident,  installed  in  the  kraton, 
governs  openly  during  the  interregnum,  which  lasts  from 
the  death  of  one  sovereign  until  the  appointment  of  his 
successor.  He  may  refuse  any  candidate  whom  he 
believes  would  make  a bad  ruler,  and  replace  him 
by  another  chosen  by  himself ; and  it  is  he  who  appoints 
and  pays  the  Prime  Minister,  or  patih,  who  must  every 
morning  give  him  an  exact  account  of  all  that  goes  on 
in  the  kraton,  must  be  loyal  to  him  even  more  than  to 
the  sovereign — must,  at  need,  act  against  the  latter  ; it  is 
the  Resident  also  who  appoints  all  civil  officials  and 
officers,  so  that  the  army,  the  police,  and  the  law  are 
under  his  hand  ; and  he  alone  may  strike  money.  The 
Susuhunan  and  the  Sultan  retain  the  right  of  appointing 
the  administrators  of  their  domains  and  certain  other 
employes.  In  all  things  they  must  take  the  advice  of 
their  “elder  brother,”  the  Resident,  who  in  virtue  of  this 
title  is  regarded  as  their  senior  ; all  of  whose  “ counsels” 
must  be  heard  with  deference,  even  should  these  phan- 
tom sovereigns  conceive  the  inadmissible  idea  of  neglect- 
ing to  carry  them  out.  Where  the  Resident  and  the 
Susuhunan  appear  together  before  the  people,  they  are 
seated  upon  the  same  dais,  upon  similar  thrones,  the 
Resident  holding  the  place  of  honour  on  the  right. 

The  Susuhunan,  like  the  three  other  princes,  may  not 
receive  a visit  or  a letter  from  the  outer  world  without 
the  permission  of  the  Resident ; he  may  not  leave  his 
palace  to  go  the  least  distance,  even  to  take  the  air, 
without  the  same  permission  ; even  in  the  most  inacces- 
sible quarter  of  the  kraton  he  is  under  the  “ protection,” 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  77 


and  more  especially  the  surveillance,  of  a handful  of 
white  soldiers  ; and  the  monopoly  of  all  the  most  valu- 
able products  of  his  State — coffee,  teak,  salt,  the  produce 
of  his  mines,  and  the  trade  in  the  nest  of  the  sea-swallow 
— have  been  ceded  to  the  Dutch  Government ; he  is  held 
by  treaties,  by  his  surroundings,  and  by  that  unanswerable 
rival,  the  purse. 

In  return,  the  princes  receive  from  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment handsome  pensions,  in  proportion  to  their  political 
importance  ; in  the  case  of  the  Susuhunan  this  pension 
amounts  to  some  £ 70,000  per  annum.  The  Government 
maintains  at  their  courts  the  over-scrupulous  etiquette, 
the  pompous  titles,  and  the  traditional  ceremonies  to 
which  the  whole  Javanese  people  are  so  greatly  attached  ; 
it  also  maintains  the  payongs  (parasols),  which  are  the 
emblems  of  their  high  rank.  It  is  true  that  in  all  inter- 
views with  the  princes  the  Resident  is  himself  provided 
with  a payong  as  large  as  that  of  the  Susuhunan.  He 
treats  them,  or  should  treat  them  outwardly  in  all  things 
with  the  greatest  deference.  The  nations  are  apparently 
subject  only  to  their  own  laws,  their  own  judges,  and 
their  own  sovereign  ; and  although  they  are  conscious, 
over  all,  of  the  hand  of  the  foreigner,  they  have  been 
accustomed  for  centuries  to  a passive  submission  to 
their  despots,  so  that  their  national  susceptibilities  are 
safeguarded,  and  they  remain  obedient.  The  princes 
having  around  them  all  the  outworn  pageantry  of  their 
courts,  full  harems,  and  abundance  of  money  to  expend 
on  luxuries  and  puerile  caprices,  are  also  well  satisfied  ; 
moreover,  they  are  chosen  and  educated  with  a view  to 
ensuring  their  content. 

Thanks  to  the  ability  and  diplomacy  displayed,  the 
“Princely  Lands,”  which  still  remain, for  every  Javanese, 
the  real  heart  of  Java,1  have  given  the  Dutch  no  anxiety 

1 “ Here  the  heart  of  Java  used  to  beat ; and  nowhere  have  Java- 
nese life,  costume,  and  tradition  persisted  as  in  these  States,  where 
the  ancient  Hindu  architects  built  their  splendid  temples,  which 
even  to-day  are  objects  of  respect  and  admiration  to  all  who  have  a 
feeling  for  art  and  beauty.  Here  we  still  find  the  flower  of  the 


78 


JAVA 


since  the  great  Javanese  war  (1825-1830),  and  are  as 
subject  to  Dutch  authority  as  is  the  rest  of  the  island. 

The  Principality  of  Surakarta,  consisting  of  the  plain 
watered  by  the  Solo  and  the  Kali 1 Denking  and  the 
Kali  Pepei,  its  tributaries,  lies  between  the  volcanoes 
Merapi  and  Lawu,  which  bound  it  to  east  and  west ; it 
has  a surface  of  2,393  square  miles,  or  rather  more  than 
a fifth  of  that  of  Holland.  The  total  population  is 
1,512,773  inhabitants. 

The  soil  is  fertile,  and  covered  with  plantations  of 
coffee,  sugar,  quinine,  pepper,  kapok  or  native  cotton, 
vanilla,  &c.  Surakarta,  which  the  Javanese  call  Solo,  and 
which  was  formerly  known  as  Kartasura  (the  city  built 
by  heroes)  is  scattered  over  a site  some  fourteen  miles 
in  circumference,  and  consists  of  a host  of  wretched- 
looking  little  houses  ; but  they  are  lost  in  a perfect  forest 
of  coco-palms,  fig-trees,  tamarinds,  and  so  forth,  from 
which  emerges  only  the  mass  of  the  kratons,  the  Dutch 
fortress,  and  the  Resident's  palace.  Vast  avenues  of 
waringins,  symbols  of  eternity  and  power,  unite  these 
various  buildings. 

Surakarta  contains  109,808  inhabitants,  of  whom  1,512 
are  Europeans  and  6,532  Chinese.  The  Europeans 
include  a Resident  and  an  Assistant  Resident  ; the 
former  being  entrusted  with  all  important  political 
affairs,  while  the  latter  is  more  especially  qualified  to 
administrate  the  monopolies  granted  to  Holland,  and 
to  watch  over  the  rights  of  Europeans  and  Chinese. 

The  European  houses  and  the  Protestant  church  are 
gathered  around  the  magnificent  Residency,  in  the 
shadow  of  the  fortress  constructed  in  1799  and  restored 
at  the  time  of  the  war.  All  the  Europeans  in  the  prin- 
cipality— planters,  officers,  or  officials — are  under  the 
obligation  of  presenting  themselves  at  the  Residency 
once  a year,  in  order  to  celebrate  the  Dutch  national 

Javanese  nobility  ; and  here  both  language  and  religion  have  most 
faithfully  preserved  their  original  form.”  (H.  H.  van  Kol,  Soerakarta, 
Indische  Gids.,  1904,  ii.) 

1 Kali,  in  Malay  and  in  Javanese,  means  river. 


ARAB  MOSQUE,  SURABAJA. 


CHINESE  TEMPLE,  SURABAJA. 


To  face  p.  78. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  79 


festival,  under  the  penalty  of  a fine  of  about  one 
hundred  florins  ; for  the  Dutch  Government  is  anxious 
to  show  the  natives,  who  once  succeeded  in  proving 
their  capacity  as  an  enemy  to  be  reckoned  with,  the 
perfect  discipline  and  cohesion  of  its  white  subjects. 

The  Chinese  quarter  of  the  city  is  the  busiest  com- 
mercially ; it  is  full  of  bazaars,  and  all  kinds  of  indus- 
tries peculiar  to  Oriental  life.  The  kampongs  of  Javanese 
of  the  lower  classes  are  scattered  here  and  there  along 
narrow  paths  which  open  on  the  great  avenues,  or  even 
along  the  sides  of  the  avenues  themselves  ; their  houses 
are  of  wood  and  bamboo,  thatched  with  palm-leaves. 
They  ply  various  trades,  but  especially  those  of  the 
goldsmith  and  the  saddler,  their  saddlery  being  especially 
famous.  The  women  weave  and  batik 1 sarongs,  which 
have  a great  reputation  throughout  the  island,  on 
account  of  their  original  designs  and  their  tasteful 
colours. 

There  are  two  kratons  of  unequal  importance  in 
Surakarta  : that  of  the  independent  prince,  the  Pan- 
geran  Adipati  Mangku-Negoro,  is  perhaps  the  more 
luxurious  because  better  ordered,  and  arranged  more  in 
the  European  manner.  It  is  also  rendered  more  con- 
spicuous by  the  presence  of  a little  army  of  eight  or 
nine  hundred  men,  whom  the  prince  has  the  right  to 
maintain  within  the  city.  But  the  kraton  of  the  Susu- 
hunan  is  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  the  Javanese.  It  is 
separated  from  the  Residency  only  by  the  great  aloun- 
aloun ; and  in  its  vast  enclosure,  the  walls  of  which 
are  pierced  by  four  gates,  above  each  of  which  rises  a 
high  watch-tower,  it  contains,  like  all  the  palaces  of 
Asiatic  rulers,  a royal  city  in  the  heart  of  the  capital. 
The  kraton  of  Surakarta,  which  consists  of  a series  of 
courtyards,  lanes,  and  promenades,  flanked  by  numerous 
buildings,  is  a perfect  hive  of  people,  containing  no  less 
than  ten  thousand  inhabitants,  the  majority  of  whom  are 
women,  since  not  only  has  the  Susuhunan  his  harem  in 
his  private  apartments,  but  he  may  never  be  served  or 
1 The  batik  process  is  described  farther  on. 


80 


JAVA 


approached  except  by  women.  Everything  that  the 
sovereign  can  require,  every  necessity  of  life  and  of 
pleasure,  is  assembled  within  the  kraton,  and  the 
spiritual  element  is  represented  by  a great  mosque  with 
a gilded  cupola,  and  the  kauman,  or  priest’s  quarters, 
near  which  are  the  buildings  reserved  for  the  personal 
use  of  the  Susuhunan,  who  in  many  parts  of  Java  is 
regarded  as  the  representative  of  God,  and  is  practically 
worshipped  in  that  capacity.  The  officers  of  the  court 
have  their  special  quarter  in  the  kraton , as  have 
several  bodies  of  craftsmen  : workers  in  gold  and  silver, 
carvers  of  wood,  makers  of  furniture,  masons,  armourers, 
saddlers,  and  the  makers  of  marionettes  employed  in  the 
shadow  theatre,  or  wayang,  or  of  musical  instruments 
for  the  gamelan,  or  the  prince’s  orchestra. 

The  portion  of  the  kraton  inhabited  by  the  Susuhunan 
is  situated  at  the  back  of  the  inner  court,  which  is  over- 
looked by  a tall  minaret  of  four  stories.  As  in  all  palaces 
of  the  Far  East,  one  enters  first  the  hall  of  audience,  the 
pringitan,  an  immense  chamber  open  on  three  sides,  and 
on  the  fourth  communicating  with  the  royal  apartments. 
The  ceilings,  the  sculptured  woodwork,  and  the  slender 
columns  are  decorated  or  incrusted  with  rare  woods  or 
precious  materials,  which  vary  with  the  wealth  of  the 
sovereign  ; the  effect  at  Surakarta  being  both  sumptuous 
and  graceful.  A covered  canopied  throne  is  placed  at 
the  back  of  the  apartment.  Here,  on  the  birthday  of 
the  Susuhunan,  or  on  that  of  the  Queen  of  Holland,  or 
on  the  date  of  certain  religious  solemnities,  are  received 
ambassadors,  distinguished  strangers,  and  the  Resident 
himself.  These  official  receptions,  to  which  no  natives 
are  admitted  but  those  of  high  rank,  who  kneel  in  a 
posture  of  adoration  before  their  sovereign,  who  in  their 
eyes  is  clothed  in  a double  sanctity,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  are  not  held  more  often  than  five  or  six  times 
a year.  The  Susuhunan  shows  himself  to  his  subjects 
even  less  frequently : seldom  more  than  four  times  a 
year.  On  these  occasions  he  is  always  accompanied  by 
his  “ elder  brother,”  the  Resident,  who  wields  the  actual 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  81 


power.  Decked  out  like  an  idol  in  wonderful  jewels, 
and  followed  by  a many-coloured  retinue  of  women, 
warriors,  and  amazons,  he  proceeds  with  pomp  to  the 
siti-inggil,  a kind  of  platform  erected  near  the  entry,  but 
within  the  walls  of  the  kraton,  surmounted  by  a kind  of 
throne,  on  which  the  two  powers  take  their  seats  beneath 
a canopy.  Without  the  gates,  the  people  massed  in  the 
aloun-aloun  prostrate  themselves  in  worship,  their  faces 
in  the  dust,  happy  in  the  sight  of  what  for  them  is  the 
supreme  incarnation  of  all  the  powers  of  the  earth.  The 
Susuhunan  receives  also  the  homage  of  his  nobles,  who 
drag  themselves  on  hands  and  knees  to  the  foot  of  the 
throne.  Then  the  entire  staff  of  the  kraton  passes  before 
him  in  review,  including  his  guard  of  honour;  and  then 
a distribution  of  food  is  made  among  the  crowd,  the 
food  being  carried  in  enormous  baskets,  the  least  of 
them,  like  all  that  concerns  his  sacred  person,  being 
sheltered  by  a huge  payong,  or  parasol,  of  gold.  Finally 
sweetmeats  and  betel-nut  are  offered  to  his  entourage;  he 
then  returns,  with  no  less  solemnity,  to  bury  himself 
in  his  harem,  amidst  his  three  thousand  wives,  to  waste, 
in  a grotesque  luxury,  his  strength,  his  intelligence,  his 
will,  and  the  £200,000  of  revenue  which  are  still  his  to 
spend  each  year. 

Close  to  the  royal  kraton  and  that  of  the  sovereign's 
quasi-rival,  the  Mangku  Negoro,  the  princes  of  the 
royal  family  and  the  high  dignitaries  of  the  court  have 
built  their  dalerns,  or  palaces,  similar,  though  smaller  in 
size  and  less  luxurious,  to  the  kraton  of  the  Susuhunan. 
The  prime  minister  or  Grand  Vizir,  often  a near  kinsman 
of  the  sovereign,  but  a faithful  ally  of  the  Dutch,  who 
alone  appoint  him  to  this  important  post  of  supervision, 
endeavours,  like  the  Mangku  Negoro,  to  interpret  his 
more  progressive  ideas  by  the  more  practical,  modern, 
and  European  arrangement  of  his  dwelling. 

Klaten  (8,209  inhabitants),  Bojolali  (6,125),  and 
Sragen  (7,963),  are  the  only  large  villages  which  have 
as  yet  sprung  up  in  the  Principality  of  Surakarta. 
From  the  historian’s  point  of  view,  their  glory  is 

7 


82 


JAVA 


departed  ; yet  to-day  they  are  waking  to  a new  life 
under  the  stimulus  of  their  economic  wealth.  Klaten 
in  particular  is  becoming  the  centre  of  a renascence  of 
the  Javanese  people,  under  the  impulse  communicated 
by  an  elite  which  has  been  created  by  European  educa- 
tion, and  which  desires  the  improvement  of  the  race,  a 
desire  devoid  of  any  hostility  towards  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment ; its  aim  a more  intelligent,  just,  and  appropriate 
employment  of  the  intelligence  and  the  soil  of  Java. 

The  second  Principality,  the  Sultanate  of  Djokjakarta, 
is  only  thirty-six  miles  from  Surakarta,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a railway.  Situated  in  a plain  at  the  foot 
of  Merapi,  Djokjakarta,  which  contains  79,567  inhabit- 
ants, of  whom  1,477  are  Europeans  and  5,266  Chinese, 
and  covers  a space  some  three  and  three-quarter  miles 
long  by  two  and  a half  miles  wide,  is  unhappily  at  the 
mercy  of  the  neighbouring  volcano  ; whenever  the  latter 
enters  upon  a term  of  repose  there  are  terrible  earth- 
quakes, one  of  which,  in  1867,  destroyed  the  entire  city 
and  killed  many  of  the  inhabitants.  Djokjakarta  is  built 
on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  its  sister  city  Surakarta,  but 
is  ruled  by  a Sultan  instead  of  a Susuhanan,  which 
implies  a certain  degree  of  inferiority.  The  Residency, 
which  is  extremely  luxurious,  is  built  in  a semi- 
European,  semi-Asiatic  style  ; it  is  protected  by  a fort- 
ress, in  which  five  hundred  European  soldiers  watch 
events  ; the  European  dwellings,  which  in  general  are 
as  comfortable  as  they  are  ornamental,  are  scattered 
about  the  neighbourhood  ; the  Chinese  kampong  con- 
tains the  bazaars  and  workshops  of  cabinet-makers  of 
renowned  skill ; while  the  natives  live  in  little  houses 
among  the  palms,  beside  the  majestic  avenues  of  warin- 
gins.  The  kraton  of  the  independent  prince,  the  Paku 
Alam,  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  Sultan,  which  is  situ- 
ated at  one  end  of  the  aloun-aloun,  the  Residency  being 
at  the  other  end.  The  royal  kraton,  which  is  as  large 
and  as  ineffectually  fortified  as  that  of  the  Susuhunan, 
contains  the  same  labyrinth  of  lanes,  courts,  and  innu- 
merable buildings ; it  contains  a population  even  more 


TENGGRI  VILLAGE — TOSARI. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  83 


numerous,  amounting  to  fifteen  thousand  souls,  although 
the  revenues  of  the  Sultan  are  not  as  large  as  those  of  the 
Susuhunan.  The  harem,  the  private  apartments,  the 
little  pleasure-houses  built  in  the  interior  of  the  kraton, 
the  wealth  of  carving  and  incrustation  in  the  hall  of 
audience,  and  the  pomp  displayed  at  important  cere- 
monies are  the  object  of  a kind  of  puerile  emulation 
between  the  two  sovereigns. 

Djokjakarta  has  the  advantage  over  Surakarta  of  possess- 
ing, on  a hill  not  far  from  the  city,  the  venerated  necro- 
polis in  which  sleep  four  hundred  princes  of  the  house  of 
Mataram  : a turbulent,  courageous,  and  luxurious  race  ; 
and  it  is  on  the  Sultan’s  territory  that  the  finest  Indo- 
Javanese  ruins  are  found,  excepting  only  those  of  Boro- 
Budur. 

One  of  these  monuments,  the  Tjandi  Mendut,  or 
Mundut,  long  buried  in  the  sand  and  ashes  vomited  by 
Merapi,  is  only  one  and  a quarter  miles  from  Boro-Budur, 
and  is,  like  the  latter,  a Buddhist  temple. 

It  is  a structure  of  octagonal  form,  crowned  by  a 
cupola  in  the  form  of  a hollow  pyramid,  over  60  feet 
in  height.  Built,  like  Boro-Budur,  of  blocks  of  dressed 
lava,  Tjandi  Mendut  still  preserves  the  general  outlines  of 
the  original  structure  and  contains  three  colossal  statues 
of  Buddha  and  a number  of  bas-reliefs,  carvings,  and 
arabesques,  examples  of  an  assured  and  delicate  art. 

The  ruins  of  Prambanan,  on  the  road  from  Djokjakarta 
to  Surakarta,  are  superior  to  those  of  Tjandi  Mendut  in 
mass,  in  the  boldness  of  their  architecture  and  the  beauty 
of  certain  of  the  carvings.  These  ruins  are  situated  in  a 
wide  plain  overlooked  by  Merapi,  which  had  so  thoroughly 
covered  them  with  its  ashes,  which  supported  a dense 
vegetation,  that  they  were  discovered  only  by  chance  in 
1797  ; no  serious  attempt  at  excavation  was  undertaken 
until  1885.  To-day  there  is  a question  of  their  restora- 
tion— a question  which  is  provoking  terrible  controver- 
sies between  architects,  archaeologists,  and  Orientalists, 
and  a keen  anxiety  among  artists  of  all  professions.  The 
restoration  of  Tjandi  Mendut  has  already  been  attempted 


84 


JAVA 


(in  1897)  by  the  architect  Van  de  Kamer  : with  a degree 
of  success  which  is  variously  appreciated,  being  highly 
praised  by  some  and  as  warmly  condemned  by  others. 

Despite  their  regrettable  state  of  decay,  the  ruins  of 
Prambanan  still  allow  one  to  appreciate  the  grandiose 
proportions  of  the  Tjandi  Loro  Djanggrang  (the  Temple 
of  the  Virgin — in  the  shape  of  Durga,  the  spouse  of  Shiva) 
— of  which  they  are  to-day  the  sole  remains. 

On  a vast  square  terrace  are  erected  six  great  sanc- 
tuaries of  polygonal  form,  whose  platforms,  cornices,  and 
porches  are  decorated  with  bas-reliefs  and  sculptures 
equal  to  those  of  Boro-Budur  : the  central  sanctuary  was 
consecrated  to  Shiva,  that  on  the  north  to  Vishnu,  and 
that  on  the  south  to  Brahmah,  as  the  three  statues  of  the 
gods  within  the  sanctuaries  testify  to-day.  The  sanctuary 
of  Shiva  is  flanked  by  lateral  chapels,  of  which  the  two 
most  curious,  dedicated  to  Durga  and  Ganesha,  still 
contain  their  effigies.  The  great  central  terrace  which 
supports  the  six  temples  is  surrounded  by  three  succes- 
sive series  of  small  temples,  disposed  in  a square  forma- 
tion; the  number  of  the  small  temples  being  forty-four  in 
the  inner  rank,  fifty-two  in  the  next,  and  sixty  in  the 
third  and  outermost  rank.  But  while  the  large  sanc- 
tuaries, more  solidly  built  upon  the  central  terrace,  are 
still  preserved  as  regards  their  main  features,  the  little 
temples  are  almost  without  exception  mere  masses  of 
sculptured  stones,  broken  cornices,  and  shattered  cupolas, 
their  ruin  being  the  work  of  the  threefold  action  of 
Merapi,  the  vegetation,  and  the  utilitarian  sacrilege  of 
natives. 

The  ruins  of  Tjandi  Sewu  (the  Thousand  Temples), 
which  are  not  far  away,  are  not,  like  those  of  Prambanan, 
of  a plainly  Brahministic  and  Shivaistic  type.  The 
central  sanctuary  used  to  contain  a statue  of  Buddha, 
which  must,  it  is  thought,  have  been  removed  in  1806. 
For  the  rest,  it  is  the  largest  structure  among  all  the 
Indo-Javanese  monuments  whose  ruins  have  as  yet 
been  discovered.  As  far  as  one  can  judge  from  its 
lamentable  state  of  decay,  it  must  have  consisted  of  240 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  85 


small  temples,  disposed  in  four  ranks  about  a central 
square  containing  a large  central  temple,  of  which  the 
cupola  was  shattered  by  the  earthquake  caused  by  Merapi 
in  1867,  which  also  blocked  the  entrance. 

To  judge  by  their  numbers,  the  powers  of  conception 
which  they  reveal,  the  boldness  of  execution,  and  the 
perfect  art  of  their  decorations,  all  these  monuments 
prove  that  here  there  formerly  existed  a great  and 
flourishing  empire  ; extremely  populous,  to  judge  by  the 
swarms  of  artisans  and  labourers  who  must  have  been 
employed  in  the  construction  of  these  gigantic  buildings  ; 
rich  and  secure,  since  it  was  able  without  anxiety  to 
undertake  such  lengthy  works  of  peace  ; deeply  religious 
and  of  a high  degree  of  civilisation,  since  it  glorified  its 
gods  in  monuments  whose  mere  remains  compel  the 
admiration  of  all  after  centuries  have  elapsed.1 

V. 

The  Residency  of  Rembang  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Java  Sea,  yet  it  has  not  a single  large  port  which 
might  provide  it  with  the  commercial  stimulus  by  which 
its  neighbours  benefit — Samarang  and  Surabaja.  The 
capital,  Rembang,  however,  although  some  few  miles 
from  the  sea,  has  a dry  and  sandy  beach,  which  is 
infinitely  more  healthy  than  the  beaches  of  most  of  the 
north-coast  ports  of  Java.  With  its  thirteen  thousand 
inhabitants  it  is  an  agreeable  city,  which  drives  an 
active  trade  in  head-kerchiefs  and  sarongs  woven  and 
batik’ d in  the  province,  carefully  worked  mattings,  and, 
above  all,  in  trasi,  trubuk , and  krupuk,  those  famous 
condiments  of  prawns  and  pounded  and  fermented  fish 
with  which  the  natives  season  their  rice,  and  which 

1 Among  the  temples  of  the  plain  of  Prambanan  and  besides  the 
group  of  Loro  Djanggrang  we  have  yet  to  mention  Tjandi  Plaosan 
and  Tjandi  Sari,  two  very  remarkable  Buddhist  temples.  The 
beautiful  specimen  of  Indo- Javanese  architecture  which  housed  the 
East  Indian  Section  at  the  Exposition  of  1900  was  a very  successful 
copy  of  Tjandi  Sari. 


86 


JAVA 


some  of  the  European  colonists  appreciate  as  eagerly 
as  the  natives.  The  greater  portion  of  the  trade 
of  Rembang  is  in  the  hands  of  a colony  of  Chinese, 
which  numbers  over  two  thousand  members.  Tuban, 
although  merely  a district  capital,  is  far  more  active 
and  populous  than  Rembang.  It  has,  moreover,  a 
very  different  history,  a still-existing  witness  of  which 
is  its  ancient  palace,  one  of  the  oldest  in  Java,  and  the 
venerated  tomb  which  it  shelters — that  of  the  Susuhunan 
Bonang,  one  of  the  first  and  most  ardent  propagandists 
of  Islam  in  Java. 

Whether  attracted  by  this  sanctuary  or  by  an  active 
market,  there  is  a colony  of  51 1 Arabs  in  Tuban,  whose 
population  is  24,500.  It  is  the  town  in  which  the  Arabs 
of  the  province  chiefly  congregate ; but  they  are  com- 
pletely outnumbered  by  their  competitors,  the  Chinese, 
who  number  3,440.  The  bathing  station  of  Bekti,  or 
Bukti,  which  is  a very  short  distance  from  the  town, 
enjoys  a certain  reputation.  Bodjonegoro  and  Blora 
(containing  respectively  12,560  and  11,990  inhabitants), 
both  district  capitals,  are  pretty  towns,  regularly  laid  out 
and  engaged  in  various  commerce  ; Blora  in  particular 
looks  extremely  charming  in  the  midst  of  its  teak  planta- 
tions, which  are  the  finest  in  all  Java. 

The  Residency  of  Madiun,  which  has  only  a small 
seaboard  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  between  the  Principality 
of  Surakarta,  the  Residency  of  Rembang,  and  that  of 
Kediri,  has  a particularly  torrid  climate.  The  capital, 
Madiun,  contains  22,819  inhabitants,  of  whom  922  are 
Europeans  and  1,827  Chinese.  It  is  on  the  River  Solo, 
in  the  great  basin  of  Solo  or  Bengawan.  Without  a 
direct  outlet,  it  dispatches  through  Rembang  and  Tuban 
the  entire  produce  of  this  highly  cultivated  region. 
Ngawi  (8,533  inhabitants),  formerly  a strategic  position 
of  value,  which  played  a considerable  part  in  the 
Javanese  War,  Magetan  (12,768),  and  Ponogoro,  are  only 
local  markets,  well  frequented  by  the  natives.  Magetan, 
at  the  foot  of  Lawu,  is  1,200  feet  above  the  sea,  which 
renders  it  more  healthy  than  the  surrounding  country. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  87 


It  possesses  two  sugar-mills.  The  capital  of  the 
remaining  district,  Patjitan  (6,911  inhabitants),  is  within 
sight  of  the  sea,  without  having  direct  access  to  it ; it 
overlooks  a wide  bay  giving  safe  anchorage,  but  is 
separated  from  it  by  a belt  of  muddy  swamp,  which  is 
to-day  transformed  into  a belt  of  paddy-fields,  or  sawahs. 

VI. 

The  eastern  portion  of  Java  comprises  the  Residencies 
of  Surabaja,  Kediri,  Pasuruan,  Besuki,  and  Madura. 

The  Residency  of  Surabaja,  in  particular,  is  one  of  the 
wealthiest  and  most  densely  peopled  of  all  Java  ; it  is 
the  superior  of  Samarang  and  the  rival  of  Batavia.  The 
capital,  Surabaja,  which  was  formerly  the  capital  of  all 
the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East  Indies,  has  been 
forced  to  cede  that  title  to  Batavia,  which  is  less  popu- 
lous, unless  we  include  Meester  Cornelis,  and  a less 
cheerful  and  active  city.  Surabaja  is  the  commercial 
centre  par  excellence;  of  its  150,000  inhabitants  8,000  are 
Europeans,  nearly  15,000  are  Chinese,  and  some  2,800 
are  Arabs.  At  least  four-fifths  of  the  whole  think  of 
nothing  but  business,  of  buying  and  selling,  the  natives 
themselves  having  been  drawn  into  the  active  commercial 
life  of  the  port.  Commerce  is  the  chief  occupation  ; the 
agreeables  of  life,  which  are  by  no  means  lacking,  are 
only  one  of  the  results  of  this  commercial  activity,  not 
the  end  of  it.  Oppressive  though  the  climate  may  be, 
in  Surabaja  men  work  incessantly,  without  relaxation, 
and  no  city  in  the  island  gives  a more  vivid  impression, 
an  impression  that  is  powerful  in  spite  of  its  apparent 
vulgarity,  of  hard  and  fruitful  labour.  Hence  the 
animation  which  one  seeks  in  vain  in  old  Batavia, 
where  trade  and  fortune  have  the  air  of  being  dealt 
with  in  a more  somnolent  manner. 

Surabaja  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  vast  alluvial 
basin  of  the  Solo,  and  is  actually  built  on  the  alluvial 
deposits  of  the  river  and  its  affluents,  which  are  gaining 
slowly  on  the  sea.  But  there  is  little  reason  to  fear  that 


88 


JAVA 


the  prosperity  of  the  port  may  suffer  ; for  the  port  itself 
is  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kali  Mas,  or  River  of  Gold,  so 
called  from  the  yellow  colour  of  its  water ; and  the  Strait 
of  Madura,  which  at  this  point,  on  account  of  its 
narrowness,  has  received  the  Dutch  title  of  Trecliter , or 
the  Funnel,  is  sufficiently  wide  and  sheltered  from  the 
winds  to  remain  for  many  years  to  come  the  best  and 
safest  anchorage  in  Java. 

Surabaja  possesses  a naval  arsenal  of  the  first  class, 
with  a gun  foundry,  naval  ship-building  yards,  and  docks, 
including  a dry  dock.  Hundreds  of  Javanese  artisans 
work  under  the  supervision  of  European  engineers  and 
foremen  in  the  Artillerie  Constructs  Winkel,  one  of  the 
largest  establishments  in  Java. 

The  Dutch  Government  had  intended  to  surround 
Surabaja  with  a costly  system  of  fortifications  ; but 
before  they  were  finished  the  city,  in  the  full  tide  of  its 
growth,  had  burst  through  this  too  scanty  garment  ; and 
it  is  extremely  unlikely  that  an  attempt  which  so 
miscarried  will  ever  be  revived. 

The  city  is  throwing  out  its  new  quarters,  which  are 
like  so  many  towns  with  their  own  peculiar  character- 
istics, along  the  two  banks  of  the  Kalis  Mas,  which  are 
connected  by  the  Red  Bridge.  Old  Surabaja  and  old 
Batavia,  with  their  stone  houses  with  gables  and  cornices, 
their  canals  and  their  long  main  streets,  where  the  houses 
stand  closely  ranked,  remind  one  of  the  ancient  cities  of 
Holland. 

In  Surabaja,  however,  the  Europeans  have  not 
abandoned  the  ancient  city.  Perhaps  the  luxurious 
villas,  with  their  wide  gardens,  which  are  grouped  about 
the  Residency  at  Simpang,  do  not  seem  so  much  healthier 
than  the  old,  sumptuous,  gloomy  buildings  ; at  all  events, 
they  migrate  unwillingly. 

The  Red  Bridge  connects  the  European  with  the 
Chinese  quarter.  The  unexpected  cleanness  and  comfort 
of  the  latter  witness  to  the  wealth  of  the  Celestials,  and 
give  one  an  idea  of  the  important  part  which  they  play  in 
the  business  world  of  Surabaja.  The  Arab  quarter, 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  89 


infinitely  less  clean,  and  consisting  of  a jumble  of  sordid 
houses,  shows  that  the  Arabs  have  been  forced  in  matters 
of  commercial  significance  to  yield  the  palm  to  the 
Europeans  and  Chinese. 

Nearly  all  the  elements  of  the  Archipelago  being 
represented  in  Surabaja,  the  native  kampongs  are  many  ; 
they  have  sprung  up  along  the  roads,  or  along  the  banks 
of  the  canals.  There  is  the  Malay  kampong,  the 
Sundanese  kampong,  the  Javanese  kampong,  the 
Madurese  kampong ; and  corporations  or  guilds  will 
often  result  in  a body  of  men  living  apart  from  the 
men  of  their  own  race,  so  that  the  kampong  of  the  potters 
is  distinct  from  that  of  the  saddlers  or  the  blacksmiths. 
This  agglomeration  of  the  most  dissimilar  types  and 
races  appears  entirely  natural  in  this  energetic,  bustling 
city,  whose  destiny  has  always  seemed  to  be  to  domi- 
nate; and  indeed  the  famous  Indo-Javanese  empire  of 
Madjapahit,  which  was  for  a time  supreme  over  the 
whole  of  Java,  and  which  succumbed  only  in  the  six- 
teenth century  under  the  blows  of  Islam,1  had  its  rise 
at  Modjokerto,  some  thirty  miles  from  Surabaja. 

Surabaja  enjoys  the  glory  of  her  bygone  memories, 
the  wealth  and  activity  of  the  present,  and  a future  which 
will  keep  pace  and  increase  in  importance  with  the  more 
prominent  part  which  the  Archipelago  will  necessarily 
be  called  upon  to  play  in  the  economic  and  political 
history  of  the  Far  East ; but  she  is  lacking  in  two  things, 
and  it  will  probably  be  long  before  she  obtains  them  : 
they  are,  namely,  pure  water  and  pure  air.  Madura, 
which  lies  facing  Surabaja,  and  shelters  the  roadstead 
from  the  full  violence  of  the  winds,  deprives  the  city  of 
their  cooling  influence.  The  temperature  of  Surabaja 
is  one  of  the  most  implacably  torrid  in  Java.  Drinkable 
water  is  more  than  scarce  ; the  only  water  which  well- 
to-do  Europeans  will  drink  is  the  Purut  water,  which 
arrives  daily  by  train,  in  large  iron  tanks,  from  Pasuruan. 

To  these  two  disadvantages  we  must  add  the  presence 
of  a vast  crowd  of  human  beings,  the  majority  of  whom 
1 In  1518,  according  to  M.  G.  P.  Rouffaer. 


90 


JAVA 


entertain  the  most  absolute  contempt  for  the  laws  of 
hygiene.  Mosquitoes  are  a permanent  plague  in  Surabaja, 
and  only  too  often  cholera  bears  them  company.  The 
kampongs  of  the  natives  are  its  favourite  lurking-place,  but 
the  gay  and  aristocratic  quarter  of  Simpang,  which  is 
doubtless  too  near  the  native  city,  is  by  no  means  safe 
from  its  visits.  This  is  why  people  as  a general  thing 
avoid  Surabaja,  or  only  pass  through  it,  stopping  or 
settling  there  only  under  the  imperious  necessity  of 
making  or  increasing  their  fortunes. 

The  various  districts  of  the  Residency  of  Surabaja  all 
share  to  a greater  or  less  extent  in  its  prosperity  and 
commercial  activity.  Djombang  and  Lamongan,  the 
capitals  of  two  of  these  districts,  contain  less  than  fifteen 
thousand  inhabitants.  Sidoardjo,  which  contains  only 
10,770,  is  known  chiefly  for  the  hot  mud  craters  in  the 
neighbouring  hills ; but  Modjokerto  and  Grisei  are  of 
very  different  dimensions  ; Modjokerto,  containing  97,624 
inhabitants,  and  the  scanty  ruins  of  Madjapahit,  is  a 
worthy  attendant  upon  Surabaja ; Grisei  is  a fallen 
queen,  supplanted  by  the  latter. 

A long  time  ago  Grisei  was,  it  is  true,  the  chief  port  of 
the  east  of  Java,  and  the  principal  centre  of  commerce  ; 
to-day  it  is  no  more  than  a fair  port  of  call  for  coasting 
vessels.  Formerly  it  was  a kind  of  holy  city,  whence 
Islam  extended  its  domination  over  Java ; where  some 
pious  and  ambitious  Mahomedans,  probably  from  the 
outer  world,  founded  a dynasty  of  priestly  kings,  whose 
moral  power  was  still  so  great  when  the  Dutch  first 
settled  in  Java  that  the  latter  at  first  regarded  them  as  the 
representatives  of  a Musulman  papacy.1 

Of  the  Sunans  of  Giri  no  trace  is  left  save  the  venerated 
tomb,  on  the  hill  overlooking  Grisei,  of  their  founder, 
Maulana  Malik  Ibrahim,  and  one  relic  still  more  extra- 
ordinary, the  writing-reed,  or  stylus,  of  the  pious  ascetic, 
which,  having  served  him  to  write  the  Koran,  was  trans- 
formed into  a magic  krees.  This  krees  one  day,  in  the 

1 Soesoehoenans  or  Soehnans.  (See  Velh,  Java,  Ind.  ed.,  vol.  i., 
p.  236.) 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  91 


struggle  between  the  Hindus  and  Musulmans,  when  the 
victorious  people  of  Madjapahit  were  pursuing  the  latter 
through  Giri,  flung  itself,  at  the  prayer  of  the  Sunan, 
against  the  Hindus,  and  effected  a massacre,  unaided  and 
unheld.  When  it  had  swept  the  Hindus  from  the  city 
it  returned  of  its  own  motion,  and  received  the  name 
of  Kja'i  Kalam-munjeng — the  Plain-Dealing  Calamus. 

Despite  the  decreasing  importance  of  Grisei,  a colony 
of  nearly  twelve  hundred  Arabs  lingers  there.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  bygone  greatness  of  Grisei  was  due 
to  men  of  their  race  and  faith. 

The  province  or  Residency  of  Kediri,  to  the  south 
of  Surabaja,  and  washed  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  of  a 
more  distinctly  agricultural  character  than  its  neighbour  ; 
its  towns  are  smaller  and  less  wideawake,  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  huge  plantations  of  coffee,  fields  of  sugar- 
cane, and  bright  green  paddy-fields. 

Kediri,  the  capital,  has  none  the  less  a fair  population  : 
40,200,  and  of  these  3,760  are  Chinese,  whose  presence 
guarantees  an  active  industrial  and  commercial  move- 
ment. Kediri,  indeed,  is  the  temporary  recipient  of  all 
the  products  of  the  surrounding  region,  which  afterwards 
proceed  to  Surabaja  by  rail,  or  by  the  innumerable 
prahus  which  descend  the  Brantas.  Kediri  has  also  its 
workers  in  gold  and  silver,  its  coppersmiths,  carpenters, 
potters,  leather- workers,  mat-makers,  whose  work  has  a 
considerable  reputation  ; the  city  is  divided  into  two  parts 
by  the  River  Brantas,  which  is  crossed  by  a fine  modern 
bridge.  On  the  left  bank  is  the  Residency,  imposing 
as  always,  in  the  midst  of  a park-like  garden  ; here  also 
is  an  old  fort,  and  the  finest  of  the  European  houses. 
On  the  right  bank  is  the  Regency,  the  native  and  Chinese 
kampongs,  the  old  European  quarter,  and  the  only  remark- 
able monument  in  Kediri : the  ancient  tomb  of  the  family 
of  the  Regents  of  Kediri,  known  as  the  Astana  Gedong. 

At  a distance  of  three  miles,  on  the  flanks  of  a hill 
called  Gunung  Klotok,  are  artificial  grottos,  Selo  mang- 
ling, containing  statuettes  of  Buddha,  to  which  natives 
and  Chinese  carry  offerings  of  fruit  and  flowers. 


92 


JAVA 


The  other  district  capitals,  Ngandjuk,  Tulungagung, 
Trenggalek,  and  Blitar,  have  less  life  and  character 
among  them  all  than  Kediri  ; but  they  are  set  in  a gay 
landscape,  so  densely  cultivated  that  the  whole  world 
seems  a garden.  Blitar  has  hardly  yet  recovered  from 
the  eruption  of  Kloot,  which  in  1875  covered  it  with  a 
wave  of  boiling  mud,  which  buried  houses,  plantations, 
and  human  beings. 

The  Residency  of  Pasuruan,  which  is  in  matters 
agricultural  as  wealthy  as  that  of  Kediri,  is  better  pro- 
vided with  outlets.  It  is  washed  both  by  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  Strait  of  Madura,  is  closely  connected 
by  rail  with  the  great  market  of  Surabaja,  and  is  also 
enabled  to  export  its  produce  directly  through  its  capital 
Pasuruan.  At  one  time  it  seemed  that  the  latter  might 
rival  or  even  be  victorious  over  Surabaja.  Its  admirable 
anchorage  was  already  frequented  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  Pasuruan  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Surapati.  The  Dutch  reduced 
it  to  a more  modest  political  position,  but  as  lately  as 
i860  it  was  still  one  of  the  four  great  commercial  cities  of 
Java.  The  construction  of  the  railway  from  Malang  to 
Surabaja  struck  it  a mortal  blow,  as  it  diverted  all  the 
produce  of  the  extreme  east  of  Java  towards  its  rival. 
Although  a slight  revival  has  been  noticed  of  late, 
Pasuruan  even  now  has  only  some  twenty-eight  thousand 
inhabitants  ; the  fine  houses  built  by  the  Europeans  have 
been  abandoned  for  a song  to  the  Chinese,  for  which 
reason  the  Chinese  quarter  in  this  city  has  an  appearance 
of  wealth  and  comfort  which  one  looks  for  elsewhere  in 
vain.  The  Javanese  and  Madurese  kampongs,  near  the 
great  Pasuruan  fish-ponds,  are  extremely  picturesque. 
The  Residency,  the  Protestant  and  Catholic  churches, 
and  a mosque  with  a minaret,  have  finally  given  quite  a 
modern  aspect  to  a somewhat  sleepy  and  unprogressive 
town,  while  they  also  mark  the  mixture  of  races  and 
beliefs. 

Pasuruan  is  chiefly  occupied  in  exporting  coffee,  sugar, 
and  fish,  the  latter  to  Madura.  A little  way  outside  the 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  93 


town  is  the  factory  where  the  pure  waters  of  Purut 
(Poeroet)  are  bottled,  and  a Government  laboratory 
where  experiments  are  conducted  referring  to  the 
culture  of  sugar-cane. 

Bangil,  a district  capital  in  this  Residency,  with  17,866 
inhabitants,  of  whom  856  are  Chinese  and  844  Arabs,  is 
far  more  active  ; Lumadjang  (16,128  inhabitants),  and 
Kraksaan  (3,667),  situated  in  two  other  districts,  serve 
as  temporary  points  of  concentration  for  all  the  agricul- 
tural products  of  a most  wonderfully  fertile  district. 

But  the  pearls  of  this  province,  which  is  itself  one  of 
the  jewels  of  Java,  are  Probolinggo  and  Malang,  one 
on  the  north  end  the  other  at  its  eastern  extremity. 

Probolinggo,  or  Banger,  as  the  natives  call  it,  from 
the  name  of  the  river  at  whose  mouth  it  is  built,  is  on 
the  Strait  of  Madura.  It  contains  14,560  inhabitants,  of 
whom  2,590  are  Chinese  and  351  Arabs,  while  the 
Europeans  hitherto  have  not  exceeded  588  in  number. 
In  1895  it  possessed  only  8,705  inhabitants.  It  has  thus 
nearly  doubled  its  inhabitants  in  fifteen  years.  It  is  well 
and  regularly  built,  pierced  by  wide  streets  running  at 
right  angles,  which  are  shaded  by  groups  of  evergreen 
trees  : tamarinds,  banyans,  and  others  : and  the  general 
aspect  is  extremely  attractive,  the  town  being  clean 
and  cheerful.  The  harbour  consists  of  a great  oblong 
basin,  on  the  quays  of  which  are  erected  the  warehouses 
where  the  final  handling  of  coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco 
takes  place ; and  there  the  vessels  lie  moored.  At  the 
entrance  to  the  harbour  is  a long  mole  surmounted  by  a 
lighthouse. 

Probolinggo  is  also  the  centre  of  a genuine  intellectual 
movement,  being  one  of  those  cities  which  are  playing 
a prominent  part  in  the  Javanese  renascence.  It  pos- 
sesses also  a college  for  the  sons  of  chiefs,  and  a Normal 
College  for  native  teachers,  who  represent  the  Govern- 
ment’s sole  effort  in  the  province  of  education.  The 
number  of  students  is  necessarily  increasing ; so  that 
although  Probolinggo  is  no  longer,  as  in  1900,  the 
capital  city  of  a province,  being  reduced  to  the  status  of 


94 


JAVA 


district  capital,  it  still  has  all  the  attractions  of  a small 
capital. 

Malang  is  far  better  developed.  A second-rate,  over- 
grown village  ten  years  ago,  it  now  surpasses  Pasuruan, 
the  official  residence,  in  commercial  activity,  and  will, 
to  all  appearances,  continue  to  do  so  for  many  years  to 
come.  It  also  surpasses  it  in  charm.  It  is  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  Tengger  range,  in  a magnificent  plain,  the 
horizon  of  which  is  enclosed  by  what  are  perhaps  the 
finest  volcanoes  in  Java  : Bromo,  Ardjurno,  and  farther 
to  the  south-east  the  majestic  Semeru,  while  at  the  back 
is  Kawi.  Thanks  to  an  altitude  of  1,460  feet  above  sea- 
level,  Malang  enjoys  an  agreeable  climate,  the  tem- 
perature not  exceeding  8o°  in  the  day,  while  at  night  it 
may  fall  to  6i°.  Although  not  absolutely  free  from  the 
paludian  fevers  which  infest  all  Java,  rising  from  her 
low-lying  plains  and  her  swampy  girdle  of  sawahs, 
Malang  knows  them  only  in  an  attenuated  form,  and 
is  a salutary  refuge  for  those  suffering  from  anaemia 
or  exhausted  by  the  torrid  sunshine  of  the  Indies.  All 
green  and  white,  in  the  midst  of  a valley  which  cultiva- 
tion has  turned  into  a garden,  Malang  affords  at  the 
end  of  every  street  the  splendid  panorama  of  the 
mountains.  The  aloun-aloun,  waringins  and  mango  and 
breadfruit-trees  growing  along  its  borders  or  scattered 
in  groups  in  the  open,  is  surrounded  by  the  Assistant 
Residency,  the  Regency,  the  mosque,  the  necessary 
public  buildings,  the  church,  and  all  the  signs  of  or- 
ganised and  official  life  ; the  native  and  Chinese  kampongs 
hang  upon  the  outskirts  of  this  aristocratic  quarter, 
making  the  suburbs'of-the  town,  so  that  the  eye  enjoys 
them  while  the  sense  of  smell  escapes  offence. 

The  prosperity  of  Malang  dates  from  the  cultivation 
of  the  entire  district,  which  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  in 
Java.  In  1808  it  contained  about  thirty  thousand  inhabi- 
tants ; to-day  there  are  half  a million,  most  of  whom  are 
occupied  in  planting  and  harvesting  coffee  and  sugar- 
cane, and  to  these  we  must  add,  at  the  period  of  harvest, 
a floating  population  of  nearly  a hundred  thousand 


THE  HILL  STATION,  TOSARI. 


THE  SANATORIUM,  TOSARI. 


To  face  p.  94. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  95 


workers  who  flock  from  all  parts  of  the  island  to  earn 
the  handsome  wage  of  two  and  a half  florins  a day — 
equivalent  to  four  shillings  and  two  pence,  or  an 
American  dollar.  The  city  itself,  which  was  a poor 
village  only  twenty  years  ago,  to-day  possesses  29,540 
inhabitants,  which  number  includes  a colony  of  1,353 
Europeans,  which  is  much  larger  than  the  colony 
in  Pasuruan,  one  of  3,537  Chinese,  and  one  of  342 
Arabs.  During  the  harvest  season  the  activity  is  intense  ; 
on  all  sides  one  meets  with  nothing  but  loads  of  coffee 
or  sugar-cane ; in  September  a complete  train  of  this 
latter  product  leaves  the  railway  station  every  ten  minutes, 
to  feed  the  sugar  factories  and  refineries  of  the  island. 

Malang,  in  spite  of  its  wealth  and  its  beauty,  is  sur- 
passed in  attractiveness  by  Tosari.  Without  being 
even  a district  capital,  this  beautifully  situated  village  is 
a hygienic  paradise  for  all  the  sick  or  convalescent  of 
Java.  Nearly  600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the 
mountains  of  Tengger,  built  on  a foundation  of  dry, 
sandy  ashes,  Tosari  is  the  most  invaluable  sanatorium 
in  the  whole  of  Java.  Indeed  we  may  say,  despite  the 
merits  of  Sindanglaja  and  Garut,  that  it  is  the  only 
sanatorium  that  really  deserves  the  name  ; since  it  is 
the  only  one,  in  the  general  opinion,  at  which  one  is 
absolutely  safe  from  fevers;  cholera,  dysentery,  and 
beri-beri  have  never  been  known  there ; and  in  default 
of  Europe  it  is  the  objective  of  all  the  convalescents 
and  consumptives  of  Java.  It  is  unsuitable  only  for 
rheumatic,  cardiac,  and  nervous  patients.  The  tempera- 
ture never  rises  above  790,  and  the  average  is  62‘6°  : 
the  nights  are  so  cool  as  to  procure  one  the  luxury 
— a delightful  one  in  the  tropics — of  being  able  to 
sleep  between  the  bedclothes  instead  of  on  the  top 
of  them.  The  flora,  the  Alpine  character  of  the  land- 
scape, the  torrential  rivers,  and  the  bracing  sweetness 
of  the  air  give  one  the  impression  of  being  transported 
suddenly  into  Switzerland ; and  the  Tenggris  villages 
which  cover  the  slopes  near  the  sanatorium  give  a 
touch  of  the  unreal  and  the  picturesque. 


96 


JAVA 


The  Tenggris  and  their  goats,  which  wander  all  day 
long,  with  tinkling  bells,  in  the  forests  of  chemaras 1 — 
those  tropical  pines  which  are  three  times  the  height 
of  ours — take  shelter  for  the  night  in  villages  of  rustic 
wooden  huts  with  roofs  of  thatch,  which  are  defended 
by  strong  palisades  of  interlaced  bamboos ; the  only 
thing  they  have  forgotten  to  borrow  from  the  Swiss  is 
cleanliness.  But  they  are  loyal,  active,  good  workers,2 
hospitable,  and  unusually  moral ; they  are  stronger, 
browner,  and  shorter  than  the  Javanese  of  the  plains. 
They  number  some  five  or  six  thousand,  and  are  scat- 
tered among  some  fifty  villages.  They  marry  only 
among  themselves,  and  are  firmly  attached  to  their 
ancient  faith  : the  worship  of  Shiva,  greatly  corrupted 
by  animistic  practices.  Each  year  they  celebrate  a 
slamettan,  or  sacrificial  repast,  ascending  for  that  purpose 
the  Dasar,  on  the  flanks  of  Bromo  or  Brahma,  to  whom 
they  make  oblation  of  rice  and  fruits,  in  place  of  the 
human  sacrifices  which,  it  is  said,  were  formerly  offered. 
All  this  district  has  remained  strongly  impregnated  with 
Hindu  beliefs,  which  flourished  with  a vigour  that  is 
still  attested  by  the  curious  ruins  of  Singosari,  at  a 
distance  of  some  six  or  seven  miles  from  Malung,  and 
those  of  Tumpang,  which  are  about  fourteen  miles  from 
the  same  city .3 

The  Tjandi  Singosari,  or  “Temple  of  the  Garden  of 
the  Lion,”  is  a graceful  structure  in  three  stories,  of 
which  the  highest,  which  rests  upon  a square  terrace, 
has  suffered  the  worst  damage.  The  interior  sanctuary, 
with  its  finely  carved  outer  walls,  is  now  empty ; but  it 
probably  contained  an  image  of  some  deity  of  the 

1 The  chemara,  or  tjemara,  is  a tree  of  the  Casuarinas  family. 
One  species,  the  Casuarina  Junghnhniana  Miq.,  is  found  most  com- 
monly on  the  summits  of  the  volcanoes  of  Eastern  Java. 

2 The  Tenggris  are  now  in  certain  localities  cultivating  the 
ordinary  potato  with  considerable  success. 

3 The  Tenggris,  or  Wong  Tengger,  literally  mountaineers,  high- 
landers, form,  according  to  Mr.  G.  P.  Rouffaer,  the  only  actually 
surviving  trace  of  the  civilisation  of  Madjapahit  in  its  latter  period. 
(See  Tenggereezen,  in  the  Encycl.  v.  Ned-Indie.) 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  97 


Brahministic  pantheon  ; probably  one  of  Shiva.  Not 
far  away,  in  the  shade  of  a crescent-shaped  grove  of 
coco-palms,  are  two  statues  some  8 or  9 feet  high,  of 
Shiva  and  Ganesha,  erect  upon  their  altars. 

The  ruins  of  Tumpang,  in  a still  more  pronounced 
condition  of  dilapidation,  rise  from  the  midst  of  a magni- 
ficent grove  of  bamboos,  areca-palms,  and  banana-trees. 
The  form  of  the  temple  is  that  of  a pyramid  built  in  three 
stages,  with  terraces  accessible  by  flights  of  steps.  The 
stairs  leading  to  the  first  terrace  are  guarded  by  rakshasas  ,* 
and  a motive  of  animals,  men,  and  plants,  carved  with 
admirable  art  and  patience,  runs  along  the  outer  friezes. 
The  force  of  the  vegetation,  even  more  than  the  forgetful- 
ness of  man,  has  been  responsible  for  the  destruction  of 
this  rare  work  of  art.  Palm-trees  and  lianas  have  dis- 
jointed the  stones  with  the  slow,  irresistible  pressure  of 
their  roots ; the  delicate  chiselling  is  corroded  by  moss 
and  lichen.  If  the  Government  does  not  take  means  to 
preserve  them  as  it  has  done  at  Boro-Budur,  the  ruins 
will  in  time  disappear  under  the  victorious  assault  of  the 
vegetable  world. 

The  province  of  Bezuki,  or  Besuki,  holds  a modest  place 
as  compared  with  Surabaja  and  Pasuruan.  The  city 
which  has  given  the  province  its  name,  and  of  which  it  is 
the  capital,  is  hardly  more  than  a district  centre ; it  is 
merely  a great  village  of  five  thousand  inhabitants,  not  far 
from  the  sea,  but  untouched  by  the  commercial  current  of 
East  Java.  It  has  been  supplanted  by  Bondjowoso,  which 
apparently  owes  its  good  fortune  solely  to  its  position  on 
the  railway.  Built  in  a valley  of  the  great  plain  of 
Panarukan,  near  the  Sampejan  or  Panarukan  River,  it 
has  only  some  8,700  inhabitants,  but  it  contains  a few 
important  sugar  and  tobacco  houses. 

Djember  and  Situbondo,  both  district  centres,  are 
developing  very  slowly,  despite  their  plantations  of 
coffee,  tobacco,  and  sugar-cane.  Djember  has  now 
only  7,790  inhabitants,  and  Situbondo,  which  in  1895 

1 Among  the  Hindus,  a kind  of  demon ; here,  guardians  of  the 
temples,  of  grotesque  and  terrible  aspect.  See  Introductory  Chapter. 

8 


98 


JAVA 


contained  10,690,  has  now  no  more  than  6,150.  Its 
traffic  has  been  taken  by  the  port  of  Panarukan,  which 
was  the  first  station  of  Alfonso  d’ Albuquerque  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  at  that  time  was  one  of  the  great 
markets  of  Java  ; to-day  it  merely  exists,  as  it  has  few 
outlets,  all  the  important  trade  of  the  East  having  left  it 
for  Surabaja,  Probolinggo,  or  Pasuruan.  The  only  town 
of  any  importance  in  the  province  (and  that  is  important 
only  by  comparison  with  the  rest)  is  Banjuwangi,  which  is 
built  upon  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Strait  of  Bali.  This 
port  used  at  one  time  to  be  frequented  by  a great  number 
of  sailing  vessels.  Although  the  town  has  greatly  suffered 
inasmuch  as  it  was  finally  decided  that  the  railway  which 
serves  Java  from  east  to  west  should  not  pass  through  it, 
it  has  derived  some  compensation  from  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
point  of  call  for  the  steamers  which  run  between  Sura- 
baja and  the  smaller  of  the  Sunda  Islands  ; and  it  is 
also  the  point  of  junction  of  the  international  cable  line 
between  Australia  and  Batavia.  The  city,  whose  title 
signifies  “ Perfumed  Waters,”  hardly  merits  it  as  far  as 
the  dirty  native  kampongs  are  concerned  ; but  the  old 
Residency,  occupied  now  by  an  Assistant  Resident,  and 
the  European  quarter  on  the  Sukaradja  hill,  enjoy  a 
magnificent  view  of  the  Strait  of  Bali  and  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  population  to-day  is  18,732,  of  whom 
256  are  Europeans,  569  Chinese,  and  543  Arabs. 

The  last  of  the  seventeen  Residencies  of  modern  Java 
is  constituted  by  its  neighbour,  the  island  of  Madura, 
in  which  the  Dutch  Government  substituted  its  own 
authority,  without  warfare  or  serious  difficulties,  for  that 
of  the  native  princes,  or  Panembahan,  between  the  years 
of  1883  (when  it  took  over  Sumenep)  and  1885  (when 
Bangkalan  was  taken  over). 

The  capital  of  Madura,  Pamekasan,  is  a small  town  of 
only  8,440  inhabitants  : but  although  small,  it  is  clean, 
pretty,  and  is  rapidly  improving.  The  Residency  is 
luxurious  and  its  gardens  delightful  ; the  Regency,  in- 
stalled in  the  huge  old  kraton,  retains  a princely  charm 
which  flatters  the  feelings  of  the  natives.  A tramway 


ADMINISTRATIVE  DIVISIONS  99 


connects  Pamekasan  with  Bangkalan,  Sampang,  and 
Sumenep. 

Sumenep,  in  the  east  of  the  island,  is  a district  capital, 
and  the  seat  of  an  Assistant  Resident  and  a Regent.  It 
was  formerly  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  Panembahan. 
It  is  the  largest  town  in  Madura,  with  its  17,930  inhabi- 
tants ; but  it  appears  to  have  seen  its  best  days,  as  in  1900 
the  population  numbered  20,020.  The  Madurese,  who  are 
robust,  hard  workers,  and  very  frugal,  are  continually 
flowing  into  Java,  where  the  spread  of  cultivation  in  the 
eastern  provinces  assures  them  of  well-paid  labour.  From 
Surabaja  to  Malang,  and  as  far  as  Panarukan,  one  meets 
them  working  for  and  highly  appreciated  by  the  foreign 
element,  whether  Chinese  or  European.  Sumenep, 
whose  dwellings  are  scattered  over  a very  large  area, 
contains  nothing  worthy  of  remark,  save  the  house  of 
the  Assistant  Resident : a modern  building  which  the 
people  persist  in  calling  a kraton ; and  the  unusually 
fine  memorial  monument  which  the  last  Panembahan 
of  Madura  has  built  in  honour  of  his  family.  The  native 
industries  are  actively  pursued,  and  articles  used  in  fishery 
and  navigation  constitute  a comparatively  lucrative  trade. 
Along  the  shores  of  the  bay,  at  the  edge  of  the  rice-fields, 
are  the  villages  of  the  salt-workers,  who  live  by  producing 
salt  for  the  State. 

Sampang,  another  district  centre,  contains  8,924  in- 
habitants, living  in  bamboo  houses,  and  eking  out  an 
existence  by  local  trade.  Bangkalan,  in  the  west  of 
the  island,  is  the  remaining  district  capital,  with  a popu- 
lation of  14,318.  It  has  a fairly  good  harbour,  and  owes 
its  present  importance  to  Surabaja,  as  it  formerly  owed  it 
to  Grisei.  It  exports  to  the  great  commercial  capital 
the  best  products  of  Madura  : animals  destined  for  the 
butcher,  fruits,  swallows'  nests,  vegetable  down,  bark  for 
tanning,  and  certain  articles  carved  or  chiselled  by 
Madurese  artisans  ; it  receives  in  return  rice,  and 
European  manufactures. 

To  sum  up  : Java  retains,  throughout  all  her  adminis- 
trative divisions,  the  aspect  of  a country  pre-eminently 


100 


JAVA 


agricultural.  Her  overpeopled  territory  contains  only 
three  large  cities  (in  the  European  sense  of  the  word)  ; 
two  ancient  native  capitals ; many  pleasant,  overgrown 
villages  which  are  spoken  of  as  cities  ; and  innumerable 
dessas,  or  hamlets,  which  are  lost  among  the  countless 
plantations,  and  whose  inhabitants  live  close  to  the  soil 
to  which  they  look  for  all  things. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 

I.  Distribution  of  the  native  element  in  Java  : the  Sundanese  and 
Madurese  compared  with  the  Javanese. — II.  The  Javanese. — 
III.  The  Javanese  house  and  village. — IV.  The  family  and 
marriage. — V.  Daily  occupations ; agricultural  labour,  hunting, 
and  fishing. — VI.  The  batik  industry  : Javanese  clothing. — 
VII.  The  love  of  pleasure,  and  the  means  of  satisfying  it : 
betel-nut,  tobacco,  opium  and  hemp ; cock-fighting  and 
gambling. — VIII.  Failings  with  which  Europeans  reproach  the 
Javanese  ; nearly  all  of  which  have  some  historic  excuse. 


I. 

Of  the  30,098,000  inhabitants  which  people  Java  and 
Madura,  29,715,900  are  natives,  293,190  Chinese,  19,148 
Arabs,  2,840  Oriental  foreigners,  and  64,917  Europeans, 
or  men  of  European  descent. 

These  natives  are  not  all  Javanese.  The  ports  contain 
some  300,000  Malayan  immigrants ; in  Batavia  the 
Malays  are  especially  numerous,  and  even  outnumber  the 
Javanese.  The  Sundanese,  whose  numbers  vary  between 
two  and  a half  and  three  millions,  are  found  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island,  but  seldom  cross  a line  drawn 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Tji  Tanduwi,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Cheribon.  Their  headquarters  are  the  Residency  of 
Preanger,  but  they  overflow  thence  into  the  province  of 
Batavia,  the  district  of  Krawang,  and  the  southern  portion 
of  Cheribon. 

The  Madurese,  who  slightly  outnumber  the  Sundanese, 
inhabit  Madura,  and  form  almost  the  entire  population 
of  Probolinggo  and  Besuki ; they  are  also  numerous  in 
Pasuruan.  The  Javanese  occupy  all  the  middle  of  the 

101 


102 


JAVA 


island,  from  Cheribon  to  Surabaja,  including  Pasuruan, 
where  they  come  into  contact  with  the  Madurese. 

We  can  hardly  mention  the  Kalangs  beside  these  three 
large  groups.  They  form  a mere  handful,  and  they  used 
to  live  a wandering  life,  drifting  all  over  the  island,  until 
one  of  the  last  Sultans  of  Mataram,  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  tied  them  down  to  fixed  localities,  or  reserva- 
tions, known  as  “ Kalangans.”  The  Kalangs  are  found 
throughout  all  Middle  Java,  but  especially  in  the  Vorsten- 
landen  of  Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta,  where  they  live 
apart  in  villages  of  their  own.  Although  their  origin 
remains  in  obscurity,  it  has  been  the  subject  of  the  most 
fantastic  legends,  born  of  the  imagination  of  the  Java- 
nese, who  sometimes  represent  them  as  born  of  the 
union  of  a princess  and  her  own  son,  and  sometimes 
as  descended  from  a man  and  a dog,  whose  tomb  may 
still  be  seen  in  the  village  of  Praguman  (in  the  Resi- 
dency of  Samarang).  Everywhere  to-day  these  gipsies 
of  the  Far  East  have  settled  down  to  a sedentary  life, 
and  have  become  merchants,  coppersmiths,  makers  of 
raitan  cord,  coopers,  &c.  This  latter  trade  they  carry 
on  to  the  profit  of  the  prince,  as  compulsory  labour.  At 
Surakarta  they  are  most  usually  wood-cutters,  cabinet- 
makers, and  carpenters. 

They  adhere  to  certain  characteristic  usages  in  the 
event  of  a wedding  or  a funeral ; in  which  the  dog 
appears  to  play  a limited  part,  presumably  totemic  ; a 
fact  which  has  given  rise  to  the  absurd  accounts  of 
their  origin.  Although  certain  ethnologists  are  inclined 
to  proclaim  their  affinity  with  the  Negritos  of  the  Philip- 
pines, and  although  the  populace  even  now  pretend 
that  they  are  often  fitted  with  a caudal  appendage,1  and 
practise  intercourse  with  their  children,  the  Kalangs  are 
in  reality  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Javanese, 

* A similar  belief  is  held  by  a number  of  Asiatic  peoples.  The 
Annamites,  for  instance,  are  persuaded  that  certain  mots  or  savages 
of  Indo-China  are  provided  with  tails.  Respecting  Tailed  Men, 
see  G.  E.  Gerini,  “ Researches  on  Ptolemy’s  Geography  of  Eastern 
India  ” (London,  1909),  p.  687,  No.  5,  and  Index. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


103 


whose  language  and  dress  they  have  adopted  ; they  are 
nearly  all  circumcised  Mahomedans,  and  frequent  mar- 
riage is  gradually  absorbing  them  into  the  Javanese  race. 

As  a matter  of  fact,  the  Javanese,  Sundanese,  and 
Madurese  appear  to  have  formed  one  single  race  origin- 
ally, and  to  have  evolved  in  slightly  different  directions, 
under  different  historical  and  climatic  conditions. 

The  Sundanese,  the  most  sturdy  of  the  three  races, 
have  the  appearance,  the  virtues,  and  the  faults  of  high- 
landers. Taller,  stronger,  and  more  energetic  than  the 
Javanese,  living  in  huts  supported  on  piles,  and  addicted 
specially  to  agricultural  labour,  they  belong  to  a civilisa- 
tion distinctly  inferior  to  that  of  the  Javanese.  They  are 
conscious  of  the  fact,  and  are  proud  or  servile  according 
to  the  circumstances.  In  the  cities,  such  as  Batavia  and 
Krawang,  they  tend  to  assimilate  the  Javanese  civilisa- 
tion ; but  in  their  mountains,  where  they  live  by  agricul- 
ture or  the  chase,  they  have  the  name  of  being  honest, 
loyal,  subject  to  tradition,  and  of  a deeply  religious  habit 
of  mind ; although  their  Islamism,  being  modified  by 
the  memories  and  the  rituals  of  bygone  cults,  is  of  a 
doubtfully  orthodox  type.  But  outwardly  they  have  been 
far  less  influenced  than  the  Javanese  by  the  Hindu  and 
Arab  civilisations  ; their  rude  language  is  far  poorer  in 
Sanscrit  terms  than  the  Javanese  tongue,  and  in  Persian 
or  Arabic  words  than  Malay.  In  the  valley  of  the  Tji 
Udjung  there  is  even  a small  group  of  Sundanese  who 
profess  a kind  of  animism,  barely  touched  by  vague 
Buddhistic  beliefs. 

While  the  Sundanese  are  tending  towards  absorption 
by  the  Javanese,  the  Madurese  are  successfully  retaining 
their  rugged  and  forceful  characteristics.  The  Dutch 
regard  them  as  among  their  best,  though  not  perhaps 
their  more  tractable  colonists.  The  native  of  Madura, 
sometimes  a merchant,  more  often  an  agricultural 
labourer,  is  headstrong,  vindictive,  over-ready  to  draw 
his  krees 1 to  avenge  the  slightest  insult,  little  amenable 

1 At  one  time  it  became  necessary  to  forbid  the  Madurese  to  carry 
arms,  on  account  of  their  hastiness  in  using  them. 


104 


JAVA 


to  advice,  and  always  impatient  of  the  yoke.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  is  laborious,  frugal,  and  has  more 
foresight  than  the  other  natives  of  the  Archipelago  ; 
and  with  these  virtues  goes  the  spice  of  parsimony  and 
surliness  which  commonly  accompanies  them.  He 
allows  no  one  to  infringe  his  rights,  nor  to  subject 
him  to  any  accusation  which  seems  to  him  unjustified  ; 
he  has  a horror  of  enforced  labour,  yet  he  acquits  him- 
self more  fully  than  any  one  in  Java  of  his  debts  toward 
the  Government  in  kind,  money,  and  the  corvee.  His 
loyalty  is  well  tried,  if  not  demonstrative  ; but  he  is 
grateful  to  his  European  masters  for  having  introduced 
a reign  of  security,  so  that  he  can  till  his  field  in  peace. 
He  has  the  name  of  being  a good  Mahomedan. 

II. 

The  Javanese,  of  the  three  races,  is  the  slightest  in 
build,  the  most  graceful,  the  most  cultivated  and  sociable. 
The  Javanese  represents  two  factors  which  take  prece- 
dence of  all  the  elements  of  the  island  life  : the  factor 
of  numbers  and  that  of  a more  refined  civilisation. 
Although  his  mentality  has  been  enfeebled  by  long 
centuries  of  servitude  and  chronic  poverty  under  greedy 
and  despotic  Governments,  conditions  from  which  it  is 
barely  beginning  to  recover,  the  Javanese  possesses 
the  memory  of  a glorious  past,  which  results  in  a feeling 
of  pride  untouched  by  the  shadow  of  sedition.  He  has 
also  retained  a really  open  mind,  a remarkable  faculty  of 
assimilation,  and  the  complex  and  exquisite  politeness  of 
a man  of  ancient  race,  who  may  have  lost  his  preroga- 
tives, yet  retains  his  air  of  being  good  company.  He 
renders  every  man  his  due,  while  he  himself  is  ready  to 
feel  deeply  wounded  if  any  one  subjects  him  to  uncalled- 
for  rudeness. 

III. 

Agriculturists  by  destiny,  and  passionate  lovers  of 
their  soil,  the  majority  of  the  Javanese  live  in  villages  or 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


105 


kampongs,1  which,  considered  as  social  and  administra- 
tive units,  are  also  called  dessa.  These  villages  may 
contain  from  thirty  to  five  hundred  inhabitants.  In  the 
towns  the  Javanese,  like  all  other  natives,  as  well  as  the 
Chinese  and  Arabs,  flock  together  and  live  to  themselves, 
thus  forming  a special  quarter,  which  in  turn  is  often 
subdivided  into  many  sections  by  the  various  bodies  of 
trade  craftsmen,  who  foregather  and  live  together.  The 
Javanese  kampong  nearly  always  has  the  appearance  of  a 
beautiful  grove  of  coco  and  other  palms,  which  shelter 
the  slightly-built  wooden  huts,  which  indeed  are  hidden 
from  view  at  a short  distance.  In  the  midst  of  the 
well-kept  and  slightly  formal  plantations  which  surround 
it  on  every  side,  the  kampong  has  the  look  of  a 
piece  of  woodland ; slightly  thinned,  but  picturesque 
in  its  very  irregularities.  Some  are  still  surrounded 
by  a palisade  of  interlaced  bamboos,  which  marks  the 
limits  of  the  village,  and  constitutes  an  outer  defence ; but 
the  majority  to-day  are  open,  and  the  houses  are  sur- 
rounded by  hedges  of  bamboos,  or  sometimes  of  coffee- 
trees,  which  serve  the  purpose  of  effectually  dividing  the 
enclosures,  while  the  outer  sides  of  the  hedges,  being 
continuous,  enclose  the  entire  village.  The  Sundanese, 
in  their  mountain  hamlets,  still  build  their  houses  on 
piles  ; but  the  Javanese  are  content  to  build  them  upon 
beaten  earth,  which  is  slightly  raised,  and  serves  as  the 
floor  of  the  house  when  the  latter  is  completed.  When 
this  precaution  is  omitted  the  soil  remains  damp,  sticky, 
and  extremely  insanitary.  The  Javanese  custom  of  beat- 
ing the  soil  is  attributed  to  Hindu  influence,  as  this  style 
of  construction  is  usual  in  India.  The  langgars,  however, 
or  domestic  oratories,  are  commonly  built  on  piles. 

We  must  not  expect  from  the  Javanese  dwelling  any 
great  variety  or  elegance  of  form.  In  the  tropics,  and 
especially  in  countries  where  the  natives  live  largely  out 

* Kampong  signifies  both  “ quarter  ” and  “ village  ” ; it  is  a collec- 
tion of  dwellings.  Dessa  includes  the  inhabitants,  their  dwellings 
and  the  political  community  which  they  represent.  Dessa  is  the 
Sanscrit  desa  = place,  region,  country. 


106 


JAVA 


of  doors,  and  often  move  from  place  to  place,  the  house 
is  not  a matter  of  great  importance.  It  has  no  chimney  ; 
the  smoke  escapes  as  it  can.  There  are  practically  no 
windows,  or  none  as  we  understand  the  term  ; light 
enters  the  house  usually  by  the  door,  or  through  the 
loosely-wattled  walls  of  bamboo,  except  where  the  inter- 
stices are  filled  with  leaves  ; so  that  even  at  noon  the 
native  hut  is  dark,  and  the  smoke  takes  one  by  the  throat. 
The  Javanese  endure  the  smoke  with  exemplary  patience, 
regarding  it  as  the  best  defence  against  the  superabun- 
dant mosquitoes.  With  this  object,  indeed,  a small  fire  is 
always  kept  burning  in  the  Javanese  hut ; and  on  cold 
nights  the  natives  sleep  on  their  mats  beside  the  fire. 
The  Javanese  house  never  contains  an  upper  story ; 
occasionally,  but  only  in  the  houses  of  the  more  pros- 
perous natives,  there  may  be  a small  granary  for  maize, 
situated  between  the  ceiling  and  the  ridge-pole  of  the 
roof.  Built  of  teak,  “ wild-wood,”  the  wood  of  the  coco- 
palm  ( glugu ),  or  bamboo,  according  to  the  locality,  and 
roofed  with  shingles,  alang-alang,1  or  nipah-tha.tch,  the 
light  and  simple  dwellings  of  the  natives  have  nothing  to 
fear  from  the  earthquakes,  which  in  this  volcanic  region 
are  so  frequent.  In  the  case  of  prosperous  householders 
the  dwelling  usually  consists  of  three  distinct  structures, 
each  with  a roof  whose  ridge-pole  turns  upward  at  the 
extremities  ; and  the  three  buildings  are  often  connected 
by  means  of  corridors. 

The  first  structure  is  the  pandopo  ( pendopo , pendoppo ), 
in  which  guests  are  received,  meetings  held,  and  feasts 
are  given.  The  central  part  is  the  pringitan ; there  guests 
who  are  stopping  the  night  or  making  a stay  are  accom- 
modated, and  there  on  certain  occasions  the  wayang  will 
give  its  performances  ; the  third  structure  is  the  omah, 
reserved  for  the  members  of  the  family  ; this  is  the  actual 

1 Alang-alang  (Javanese),  or  lalang  (Malay),  the  Imperata  arun- 
dinacea  Cyrill. 

* Nipa  fruticans  Wurmb.  (Palms).  The  term  atap  is  given  to  the 
alang-alang  as  well  as  to  the  leaves  of  the  nipah  when  these  materials 
are  used  for  roofing  purposes. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


107 


dwelling-house.  To  the  left,  as  a rule,  of  the  pringitan,  in 
an  annex  covered  by  the  same  roof,  is  the  kitchen,  the 
bath-room,  and  a small  apartment  used  for  grinding 
rice.  Behind  this  building  is  the  byre  for  the  buffalo  and 
the  cows,  and  further  still  in  the  rear  the  horses  are 
stabled.  To  the  right  of  the  pringitan  is  the  big  granary 
for  the  rice,  the  door  of  which  is  above  the  level  of  the 
ground ; behind  it,  and  farther  away,  is  the  langgar 
(oratory)  where  the  Koran  is  taught  to  the  children,  and 
to  which  the  women  are  admitted  from  time  to  time  in 
order  to  offer  up  their  prayers. 

Among  the  peasants  the  house  consists  of  two  parts 
only  : the  pandopo,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  the 
pringitan  ; the  omah,  where  the  family  lives,  and  which 
serves  also  as  the  kitchen,  and  a storehouse  for  the  imple- 
ments of  field  labour.  In  these  two  primitive  types  of 
habitation  the  Javanese,  whose  love  of  specialisation 
knows  no  limits,  profess  to  distinguish  four  architectural 
types,  in  which  there  are  certain  differences  of  ornamen- 
tation, dimensions,  and  material ; and  these  four  types 
may  themselves  be  sub-divided  into  eight  or  ten  varieties, 
all  having  individual  names  ; it  is,  in  short,  a case  of  a 
great  deal  of  sublety  for  a very  slight  difference. 

Compared  with  the  house,  the  furniture  is  rudimentary. 
There  are  wooden  bed-frames,  mats  of  every  form,  colour, 
and  value,  the  uses  of  which  are  innumerable  ; vessels  of 
various  kinds  in  baked  clay  and  in  copper ; kitchen  utensils, 
articles  for  table  use,  tea-service  and  tray,  sirih  sets,1 
cushions,  screens,  coffers  to  hold  clothing,  lamps  of 
earthenware  and  metal,  including,  in  the  houses  of  chiefs, 
the  modern  hanging  type ; porcelains,  baskets,  panniers  of 
woven  bamboo,  fishing  and  hunting  gear,  agricultural 
implements,  &c.  The  numbers  of  objects,  the  quantity 
of  metal  employed,  and  the  fineness  of  the  work  are, 
as  everywhere,  proportioned  to  the  wealth  of  the 
owner. 

1 These  contain  all  that  is  required  for  the  preparation  of  the  betel- 
nut  for  chewing.  Such  sets  are  made  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  or 
simply  in  plaited  cane  or  reeds.  In  Malay  betel  is  called  sirik. 


108 


JAVA 


Thus  built  and  furnished,  and  fronting  on  a few  flower- 
beds, square  plots  of  kitchen  herbs  and  vegetables, 
surrounded  by  fruit-trees,  mangoes,  coco-palms,  bananas, 
and  separated  from  the  road  and  from  its  neighbours  by 
a thick  hedge,  most  often  of  bamboos,  the  Javanese 
dwelling-house  has  a cheerful,  primitive  aspect,  and  a 
certain  air  of  being  only  a temporary  shelter. 

A group  of  several  alleys  of  such  houses  constitutes  a 
village,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  aloun-aloun,  a small 
open  stretch  of  turf,  where  the  market  is  held.  The 
house  of  the  chief  or  headman  of  the  kampong  generally 
overlooks  the  market-place.  A drum  which  serves  to 
mark  the  hours  informs  the  villagers  of  the  flight  of 
time,  or  warns  them  in  case  of  alarm.  There  they  live 
in  peace  under  the  order  of  a chief  elected  by  themselves  : 
the  only  political  right  which  has  been  left  for  them  to 
exercise.1  He  governs  them  according  to  the  principles 
of  a law  admitted  by  all  : the  adat,  which  is  a mass  of 
old  customs  and  racial  traditions.  This  law,  which  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Mahomedan  religious  law,  is  often 
opposed  to  it,  and  only  gives  way  to  it  in  matters  purely 
theological  or  questions  of  ritual.  The  adat,  or  custom, 
and  the  clieriat,  or  religious  law,  and  the  suzerainty  of  the 
Dutch,  exercised  through  the  intermediary  of  the  native 
aristocracy,  are  the  three  ruling  forces  in  the  social  and 
political  life  of  Java. 

In  the  event  of  conflict  among  themselves  the  natives 
are  judged,  under  the  supervision  of  an  European  judge, 
by  a native  judge,  whose  duty  it  is  to  explain  and  apply 
the  law  of  custom,  or  adat.  It  goes  without  saying  that 
in  cases  where  the  law  of  custom  would  violate  the 
humanitarian  principles  of  the  Europeans,  the  Dutch 
official  would  intervene  in  order  to  soften  it  somewhat, 
and  a sentence  is  never  pronounced  without  his  approval. 
As  a matter  of  fact  it  is  always  he  who  delivers  the  final 

1 The  election  must  be  ratified  by  the  Dutch  Resident,  who  at 
need  rejects  persons  of  infirm  health,  smokers  of  opium  (hemp  ?), 
notorious  misers,  and  in  general  those  who  are  mentally  or  morally 
or  physically  deficient. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


109 


judgment,  although  through  the  medium  of  the  native 
judges  or  chiefs. 

In  the  event  of  litigation  between  natives  and  Euro- 
peans, and  in  cases  in  which  the  European  has  committed 
the  offence,  the  latter  is  subject  only  to  the  Dutch  police 
and  the  Dutch  law,  but  the  latter  takes  into  account  the 
manner  in  which  the  defendant  has  violated  the  law  of 
adat. 

It  is  a curious  thing  that  the  natives  of  this  country, 
despite  the  urave  of  Buddhism  once  swept  over  it,  and 
notwithstanding  their  usually  gentle  character,  are  un- 
feeling where  animals  are  concerned  ; excepting  as  regard 
the  buffalo,  the  indispensable  companion  of  their  labours, 
and  the  game-cock,  the  instrument  of  pleasure  and  of 
gain. 


IV. 

The  family  in  Java  is  very  firmly  united.  A keen 
affection  binds  the  Javanese  to  his  own.  Extremely 
prolific — to  judge  by  the  alarming  increase  of  the  popu- 
lation, the  most  prolific  father  in  the  world — the  number 
of  his  children  does  not  decrease  the  strength  of  his 
affection.  Long  accustomed  to  a happy-go-lucky  ex- 
istence, and  to  poverty,  the  increase  of  his  family  gives 
him  none  of  the  bitter  anxiety  of  our  modern  proletariat. 
It  costs  so  little  to  live  in  Java  that  the  children  will 
always  have  enough  to  eat;  and,* as  in  India,  fecundity 
and  sterility  are  regarded  as  the  especial  marks  of  God’s 
approval  or  displeasure.  Sons  and  daughters  alike,  the 
Javanese  father  treats  his  children  with  the  greatest 
tenderness ; caressing  them  often,  protecting  them  from 
harm ; and  in  return  the  children  manifest  the  greatest 
deference  to  their  parents,  and  where  needful  support 
them  and  see  to  all  their  needs,  so  that  the  law  has  no 
need  to  intervene.  Such  behaviour  is  prompted  both  by 
the  adat  and  their  own  hearts.  Although  the  religious 
law  permits  polygamy,  the  Javanese  leaves  the  practice  to 
the  wealthy  and  eminent  ; regents,  vizirs  (J>atih),  or  even 


110 


JAVA 


district  chiefs  or  headmen  ( wedonos ) ; but  even  these,  in 
imitation  of  the  Europeans,  are  tending  to  limit  them- 
selves to  monogamy,  at  least  officially.  Thus  poverty  on 
the  one  hand  and  snobbery  on  the  other,  despite  the 
influence  of  Hinduism  and  the  Musulman  law,  are 
uniting  to  restore  the  women  of  Java  to  the  place  which 
is  due  to  them,  and  which  will  make  for  the  better  progress 
of  the  race.  The  adat,  in  this  particular,  has  exercised 
an  excellent  influence ; the  moral  and  material  situation 
of  woman  among  the  Malayo-Polynesians  has  always 
been  a high  one,  the  matriarchate,  with  all  its  conse- 
quences, having  for  a long  period  been  the  basis  of  Malay 
society,  and  among  the  Negri  Sambilan  of  the  Peninsula 
it  is  still  practised. 

This  is  why,  in  spite  of  Islam,  the  Javanese  woman 
goes  abroad  unveiled,  shares  the  interests  of  her  husband, 
has  her  place  at  festivals,  and  speaks  freely  at  home.  Both 
wife  and  husband,  moreover,  so  continually  work  side  by 
side  that  this  community  of  labour  strengthens  the  position 
of  the  Javanese  woman,  although  this  does  not  equal  that 
of  her  European  sisters. 

The  Javanese  marry  early,  and  celibacy  is  as  unknown 
as  it  is  inconvenient.  Where  the  daughter  is  of  nubile 
age — say  twelve  or  fourteen — and  the  boy  about  sixteen, 
the  parents  begin  to  confer  with  a view  to  discussing  their 
union.  It  is  only  after  the  parents  have  agreed  that  the 
two  young  people  are  allowed  to  see  one  another.  Then, 
although  the  bridegroom’s  consent  is  necessary,  that  of 
the  daughter  is  not  indispensable.  It  is  true  that  the 
affection  of  the  parents  nearly  always  modifies  the  rigour 
of  the  law  upon  this  point.  A pledge  of  betrothal,  con- 
sisting of  jewels  and  food,  is  then  offered  by  the  boy's 
parents  to  the  girl’s,  who  also  receive,  a few  days  later,  the 
11  price  of  purchase  " of  the  bride,  or  the  tumbassan,  com- 
posed of  silver,  household  utensils,  or  furniture,  cloth  and 
other  stuffs  for  clothing,  rice  and  game,  the  quantities 
varying  with  the  rank  of  the  betrothed  couple.  To  these 
is  added  a special  present  for  the  parents.  On  the  day 
when  these  presents  are  received  the  parents  of  the  two 


A JAVANESE  bRlDEGKOOM. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


111 


young  people  are  expected  to  send  to  all  their  relatives, 
friends,  and  superiors — one  might  almost  say  to  every 
inhabitant  of  the  village — a small  present  of  food  and  an 
invitation  to  attend  the  family  gathering,  which  will  last 
for  one  or  for  several  days,  spent  alternately  in  the  houses 
of  the  boy’s  and  the  girl's  parents.  A marriage  in  Java, 
as  among  all  races  whose  manners  are  still  simple,  cannot 
take  place  without  repeated  banquets,  which  nearly  ruin 
the  young  couple  and  their  parents,  but  which  leave 
them,  at  least,  the  consolation  of  regaling  themselves 
as  generously  at  the  very  next  marriage  of  a member  of 
the  community. 

The  night  preceding  the  wedding  must  be  passed  in 
vigil  by  the  future  spouses,  or  some  great  unhappiness 
will  overtake  them.  On  the  following  day  the  wedding 
is  celebrated  in  the  mosque  according  to  the  customary 
ritual  of  Islam.  The  bridegroom,  in  resplendent  cloth- 
ing, his  face  rouged,  surrounded  by  all  his  relatives  and 
friends,  preceded  by  strident  music,  proceeds  to  the 
mosque,  while  the  girl,  who  is  confined  to  the  house,  is 
represented  at  the  mosque  by  her  wali,  or  tutor.  Then, 
having  re-entered  his  own  house,  the  young  bridegroom 
exchanges  his  court  dress  for  another  costume,  which  is 
often  as  rich,  but  less  solemn  in  effect,  and  proceeds  with 
due  ceremony  with  all  his  attendants  to  the  wife’s  home, 
where  she  awaits  him,  decked  in  her  finest  raiment, 
rouged  and  painted,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  and  the 
arms  bare,  and  well  rubbed  with  boreh.1 

To  symbolise  her  complete  submission  to  her  husband, 
she  washes  his  feet,  and  is  then  led  by  him,  in  procession, 
to  the  home  of  her  new  relations,  where  a well-covered 
table  awaits  the  invited  guests.  On  the  following  day 
another  feast  is  held  at  the  house  of  the  bride's  parents  ; 
on  the  third  day  the  young  people  have  the  right  to  with- 
draw and  settle  down  in  their  own  house,  if  they  have 
one  ; sometimes,  despite  the  gorgeous  clothing  and  the 

1 A mixture  of  saffron  and  poppy  oil,  which  is  employed  in  Java 
to  stain  the  upper  part  of  the  body  yellow,  that  portion  being  left 
bare  on  certain  solemn  occasions. 


112 


JAVA 


sumptuous  feasts,  they  are  too  poor  to  possess  a home 
of  their  own,  in  which  case  they  settle  down  with  the 
wife’s  parents  until  they  have  found  the  means  of  pro- 
curing a separate  house. 


V. 

As  Java  is  nothing  else  than  a vast  plantation  of  rice, 
coffee,  sugar-cane,  tea,  quinine,  indigo,  &c.,  the  Javanese 
native  leads  a purely  agricultural  existence.  He  devotes 
himself  especially  to  the  cultivation  of  rice  ; for  while 
other  crops  yield  him  a little  profit  and  his  masters  a 
very  large  one,  it  is  the  rice-crop  alone  that  nourishes 
him.  Rice  is  his  staple,  indispensable  food  ; and  it  is 
a common  saying  that  if,  upon  rising  from  the  most 
copious  banquet,  the  Javanese  has  had  his  accustomed 
allowance  of  rice,  he  will  declare  that  he  has  not  eaten. 

The  cultivation  of  rice,  be  it  said,  is  no  easy  task. 
In  transplanting  rice  the  native  works  all  day  knee- 
deep  in  slippery  mud,  which  is  rich  in  noxious  gases, 
and  the  home  of  the  deadly  mosquito  ; while  at  the 
period  of  harvest  he  is  forced  to  work  for  days 
together  in  a stooping  position,  as  the  ears  are  cut  off 
by  hand,  instead  of  being  reaped  with  a scythe,  as 
corn  is  harvested  in  England. 

The  industries  arising  from  the  chief  crops  of  Java 
— the  preparation  of  tobacco,  tea,  indigo,  and  coffee, 
and  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  which  have  made  great 
strides  since  the  extension  of  the  system  of  free  labour 
— employ  considerable  numbers  of  natives.  They  are 
docile  and  skilful,  but  one  can  hardly  say  that  they 
are  always  energetic. 

The  Javanese,  according  to  general  testimony,  is  not 
a born  worker.  He  can  live  on  a handful  of  rice  and 
a little  fruit,  which  diet  he  can  obtain  without  effort, 
almost  by  the  mere  fertility  of  the  soil.  As  his  desires 
are  practically  limited  to  the  bare  means  of  sub- 
sistence, he  would  prefer  to  limit  his  labour.  He  would 
rather  diminish  his  requirements  and  at  the  same  time 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


113 


his  exertions  than  to  labour  with  a view  to  creating 
new  necessities  and  to  gratify  them.  This  philosophy, 
however  it  may  disarm  the  psychologist,  is,  we  must 
admit,  extremely  irritating  to  the  colonist,  and  in 
absolute  contradiction  to  the  feverish  activity  of  the 
West.  Perhaps  we  should  attribute  the  very  real 
apathy  of  the  Javanese,  as  of  many  other  Asiatics, 
to  the  fact  that  he  has  laboured  incessantly  for 
centuries,  but  never  for  himself.  He  is,  therefore, 
not  indifferent  to  the  soil,  to  which  indeed  he  is 
passionately  attached,  but  he  is  weary  of  fruitless 
labour.  When  he  is  able  clearly  to  understand  the 
evils  to  which  his  lack  of  foresight  may  expose  him, 
and  is  convinced  of  the  possibility  of  enjoying  the 
fruits  of  his  own  labour,  there  is  a probability  that 
he  will  bring  to  that  daily  labour  the  enthusiasm  of 
which  he  so  often  gives  proof  in  matters  of  his  own 
intellectual  development. 

Besides  cultivating  his  rice-field  and  his  little  orchard, 
the  Javanese  habitually  increases  his  store  of  food  and 
of  money  by  fishing  and  hunting.  Hunting,  however, 
plays  a much  smaller  part  in  his  life  than  fishing, 
provided  that  he  lives  near  the  coast  or  some  large 
river.  There  are  several  reasons  for  this ; hunting  is 
nearly  always  harder  work,  and  more  uncertain  than 
fishing ; moreover,  the  dense  cultivation  of  the  soil 
in  Java  has  made  game  less  plentiful  than  it  used  to 
be;  and  the  laws  of  Islam  forbid  the  consumption  of 
the  flesh  of  certain  animals. 

The  hunting  of  the  larger  wild  animals  has  diminished 
because  many  of  them  have  become  rare,  and  because, 
for  instance,  the  natives  have  noticed  that  where  the 
tigers  and  other  large  cats  are  hunted  too  vigorously, 
the  plantations  are  overrun  by  herbivorous  animals,  but 
by  pigs  in  especial,  to  the  great  detriment  of  the  crops. 
Finally,  some  of  the  native  princes,  and  even  some  of 
the  regents,  reserve  for  themselves  the  trophies  of 
tiger — or  leopard — hunting,  in  order  to  keep  them  in 
their  menageries,  or  to  preserve  them  for  the  wild- 

9 


114 


JAVA 


beast  fights  with  which  they  still,  though  less  often 
than  of  old,  enliven  their  principal  feasts  or  receptions. 

The  larger  animals  are  hunted  most  of  all  in  the 
Preangers,  where  they  are  most  plentiful  and  most 
dangerous.  The  natives  try  to  take  them  alive  in 
heavy  traps,  the  principle  of  which  is  very  much  that 
of  a rat-trap ; in  this  way  some  of  the  finest  tigers 
find  their  way  to  the  special  quarters  in  the  palaces 
of  the  Sultan  of  Djokjakarta  or  the  Susuhunan  of 
Surakarta,  where  they  are  kept  in  reserve  for  some 
future  festival ; but  the  greater  number  are  drowned 
in  their  traps,  which  are  carried  to  the  nearest  river, 
in  order  that  the  beasts  may  be  killed  without  damage 
to  their  skins.  Tigers  are  also  taken  by  many  other 
means. 

For  every  tiger  killed  the  hunter  receives  a Govern- 
ment bounty ; and  the  skin,  deprived  of  its  teeth, 
claws,  and  whiskers,  which  the  native  regards  as  a 
very  powerful  fetish,  and  one  for  which  he  will  pay 
a considerable  price,  is  also  sold  on  the  spot  for  a 
very  fair  price.  Some  skins  are  sent  to  Europe  ; but 
the  greater  number  remain  in  the  Archipelago,  where 
they  are  employed  in  the  making  of  rugs  and  saddlery 
and  for  decorative  purposes;  unfortunately  the  process 
by  which  they  are  tanned  is  usually  so  unsuccessful 
that,  under  the  influence  of  insects  and  the  damp,  such 
articles  quickly  lose  their  lustre  and  their  value. 

Although  there  are  no  wild  elephants  in  Java,  there 
are  herds  of  rhinoceros,  which  gradually  decrease  as 
the  uncultivated  tracts  of  the  island  are  reclaimed. 
The  Javanese  kill  them  all  the  more  willingly  because 
the  hide  of  a rhinoceros  will  often  fetch  more  than 
200  florins  (over  £16)  on  the  spot.  The  natives  eat 
the  flesh,  and  the  horns  are  sold  at  a high  price  to 
the  Chinese,  who  believe  them  to  possess  remarkable 
medicinal  and  restorative  qualities.  The  Javanese  them- 
selves believe  that  a little  disc  of  rhinoceros  horn 
applied  to  a serpent’s  bite  will  neutralise  the  venom  ; 
the  hide  serves  to  make  whips  and  switches ; while 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


115 


the  Chinese  sometimes  carve  the  horns,  mount  them 
on  a base,  and  send  them  to  Europe.  The  Javanese, 
in  order  to  avoid  injuring  the  hide,  always  prefer  to 
snare  the  rhinoceros  rather  than  shoot  it. 

The  wild  pig  abounds  in  Java.  The  principal  species 
are,  the  widjung,  or  “ coffee-pig  ” ( Sus  vittatus),  whose 
flesh  is  excellent  eating,  and  the  gonteng  of  the  moun- 
tains, called  wraha  in  the  plains,  or  “ callous  swine  ” 
(. Sus  verrucosus),  which  is  far  less  highly  appre- 
ciated. In  order  to  protect  their  crops,  and  on 
account  of  its  ferocity,  the  Javanese  hunt  the  pig 
relentlessly  ; they  do  not,  however,  gain  much  by  the 
sport,  as  their  religion  forbids  them  to  eat  the  flesh 
of  swine,  which  is  accordingly  left  to  the  Chinese. 
In  some  of  the  mountain  regions,  however,  this  law 
is  less  strictly  observed,  and  the  dried  flesh,  cut  into 
thin  slices,  and  sold  under  the  name  of  dendeng,1  finds 
plenty  of  consumers  who  do  not  boggle  over  its 
origin.  The  great  wild  buffalo,  or  banteng  ( Bos  son - 
daicus ),  which  is  shot  and  eaten  on  the  spot,  is  a 
profitable  quarry,  as  its  hide,  horns,  and  hooves  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  a large  number  of 
articles  for  every-day  use  or  for  exportation. 

Deer  ( rusa ) are  almost  as  plentiful  as  wild  pigs,  and 
are  hunted  even  more  eagerly.  The  dried  venison,  or 
dendeng , is  a staple  article  of  commerce  in  the  Archi- 
pelago ; the  horns  and  hide  are  utilised  in  various 
industries.  The  young  antlers,  still  covered  with  a 
mossy  skin,  are  also  bought  at  a fair  price  by  the 
Chinese,  who  regard  their  fortifying  virtues  to  be  even 
superior  to  those  of  the  rhinoceros  horn.  The  dried 
tendons  are  also  secured  for  the  tables  of  the  wealthy, 
and  are  even  exported  to  China  ; they  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  a succulent  sweetmeat. 

Stag-hunting,  whether  undertaken  with  the  rifle  or 
with  hounds,  is  a passion  which  the  Europeans  share 
with  the  natives.  The  result  is  a gradual  but  percep- 

1 All  dried  meat,  whether  seasoned  with  spices  or  not,  is  called 
dendeng  in  Java. 


116 


JAVA 


tible  decrease  in  the  numbers  of  the  deer,  which  one 
no  longer  sees,  as  the  great  naturalist  Junghuhn  saw 
them  on  the  Iyen  in  i860,  in  herds  to  the  number  of 
many  thousands.  The  roe  deer,  which  are  very  abundant, 
are  valued  especially  for  their  flesh. 

Among  the  cetaceans  the  sea-cow  or  dugong,  duyong 
(Halicore  Dujong),  is  eaten  with  enjoyment  by  the 
natives,1  who  also  hunt  the  cachalot  ( ikan  lodan), 
principally  for  its  teeth,  which  are  made  into  krees- 
handles.  Both  these  mammalia  are  more  common  in 
the  Outer  Possessions  than  about  Java. 

Many  Javanese  birds  are  greatly  prized,  either  for 
their  plumage  or  for  their  flesh.  The  peacock  is  eaten, 
as  is  the  wildfowl,  the  duck,  the  plover,  the  wood- 
cock (which  at  certain  periods  is  very  abundant  in 
the  western  part  of  the  island,  and  is  taken  alive),  the 
dlimangan  or  tre,  a quail,  which  is  sometimes  trained 
to  fight,  and  also  doves  and  pigeons,  which  are  greatly 
esteemed  both  for  their  flesh  and  their  song,  and  are 
found  in  almost  every  Javanese  dwelling,  where  their 
soothing  voices  break  the  midday  silence. 

Certain  pigeons,  parakeets,  cockatoos,  kingfishers, 
doves,  sri-gunting  ( Edolius  fortificatus),  and  birds  of 
paradise  are  caught  by  the  net  or  by  liming,  instead 
of  being  shot,  as  their  plumage  is  the  object  of  an 
important  export  trade  with  China  and  Europe. 

As  for  snakes,  the  Javanese  eat  their  flesh,  but  have 
hitherto  made  little  use  of  their  skins.  Now,  however, 
a demand  is  springing  up  in  Europe  for  the  latter, 
which  are  used  in  the  fabrication  of  purses,  card-cases, 
pocket-books,  &c. 

All  things  being  considered,  however,  the  native  gains 
more  by  his  fisheries  than  by  hunting.  Fish  literally 
swarm  in  the  Javanese  seas  and  rivers,  and  of  the 
hundreds  of  species  caught  there  are  very  few  that  are 
not  of  use  for  edible  or  other  purposes. 

The  king  of  the  fresh-water  fish  is  the  gurami  ( Ospho - 

1 Syn.  Dugong,  perampuwan  laut  (in  Malay,  sea-woman,  mer- 
maid). 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


117 


menus  olfax),  which  is  reserved  for  the  tables  of 
chiefs  or  the  wealthy,  and  is  reared  for  the  market  in 
special  fish-ponds  or  tanks.  A gurami  of  20  to  30 
pounds’  weight  is  always  a welcome  present  in  the 
Dutch  Indies.  Natives,  Europeans,  and  Chinese  all 
appreciate  it  equally ; but  Europeans  prefer  to  eat  it 
while  quite  young,  and  weighing  only  3 pounds, 
or  less.  It  reminds  one  of  a perch,  and  belongs  to 
the  same  family,  but  has  a more  distinct  flavour. 
Among  the  anabas  we  must  mention  the  betek,  or 
climbing  perch,  which  is  able,  thanks  to  a peculiar 
cellular  structure,  to  leave  the  water  for  short  periods 
of  time,  when  it  climbs  up  the  roots  of  the  trees 
growing  in  the  marshes,  and  there  obtains  a plentiful 
harvest  of  insects.  Then  there  is  the  gabus,  an  article 
of  the  greatest  importance  throughout  all  Java,  where 
it  is  consumed  more  especially  as  ikan  bring — that  is, 
in  the  dried  state — while  the  Dutch  prefer  to  eat  it 
newly  caught ; the  bayong,  which  is  rather  less  fat 
than  the  gabas,  and  which  seldom  attains  a weight 
of  more  than  4^  pounds.  It  is  very  abundant  and  is 
also  eaten  in  the  dried  state.  Many  varieties  of  carp 
are  carefully  reared  in  enormous  fish-ponds  for  sale 
to  the  Dutch  and  the  Chinese;  one  species,  the 
tambra,  is  reared  especially  for  the  Chinese  and  the 
natives.  There  are  also  various  species  of  eels  and 
conger ; marsh  lampreys,  which  are  reared  for  the 
tables  of  the  Europeans ; numbers  of  mud-fish  (silures) 
which  seem  to  issue  from  the  earth  when  the  rice- 
fields  are  inundated,  so  plentiful  are  they,  and  which 
the  natives  obtain  for  next  to  nothing,  even  in  the 
markets.  These  fish  are  all  nourishing  and  of  an 
excellent  flavour. 

The  sea-fisheries  are  naturally  undertaken  by  the  sea- 
board populations.  The  most  valued  of  all  the  salt- 
water fish,  though  not  the  most  abundant,  is  the  kakap  ; 
next  comes  the  roio,  which  is  far  less  readily  caught. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  mackerel,  including  the  tunny, 
which  is  eaten  either  fresh  or  preserved ; still  more 


118 


JAVA 


numerous  varieties  of  the  herring,  the  best  of  which  is 
the  bandeng ; and  finally  the  trubuk,  the  Indian  or  long- 
tailed shad,  which  is  caught  chiefly  off  the  eastern  coast 
of  Sumatra,  but  which  is  also  found  on  the  Javanese 
coast ; the  salted  roe  of  which  is  a condiment  highly 
valued,  even  by  some  Europeans. 

The  necessity  of  overcoming  the  monotony  of  per- 
petual rice  and  facilitating  its  digestion,  and  the  natives' 
custom  of  eating  a certain  amount  of  their  meat  and 
most  of  their  fish  in  a smoked,  dried,  or  salted  condition, 
explains  the  common  use  in  Java,  as  in  nearly  all 
countries  of  the  Far  East,  of  those  animal  and  vegetable 
condiments  whose  ingredients  and  odour  are  nearly 
always  so  violently  repugnant  to  the  European. 

The  condiments  most  usually  employed  in  Java  among 
the  better  class  of  natives  are  : ikan  gerek,  a paste  made 
of  various  small  fishes,  kneaded  up  with  salt,  “ Spanish 
pepper," 1 and  various  spices,  which  is  packed  in  baskets, 
in  which  it  gradually  becomes  of  a firmer  consistency  ; 
trassi,  or  terasi,  a paste  of  prawns,  shrimps,  or  small 
fishes,  brayed  together  with  salt  and  spices ; ebbi,  or 
dried  prawns  and  river  crayfish,  which  are  exported  as 
far  as  China.  To  these  complementary  aliments  the 
Javanese  are  fond  of  adding  the  salted  eggs  of  the  duck, 
hen,  or  turtle  ( telor  asin),  and  the  shad’s  roe,  or  trubuk. 
As  for  trepang,  or  beche  de  mer 2 3 (the  holothure,  or  sea- 
cucumber),  which  crawls  in  enormous  numbers  along 
the  sea-bottoms  of  Java,  the  natives  eagerly  carry  on  this 
fishery,  but  as  a means  of  making  money,  for  they  do  not 

1 Dutch  : Spaansche  peper.  This  is  the  Capsicum  antiuum  L.,  or 
annual  pepper,  better  known  in  France  as  Indian  pepper,  or  long 

pepper. 

3 Or  becch-de-mer,  from  the  Portuguese  bicho-de-mar,  “ sea-worm,” 
or  sea-slug ; the  zee-komkommer,  or  sea-cucumber  of  the  Dutch. 
The  price  per  picul  (a  weight  of  133  lb.)  varies  from  2 florins  50  to 
170  florins,  according  to  the  locality  and  the  quality.  In  China,  the 
great  market  for  this  merchandise,  the  price  runs  from  50  to  275 
florins,  and  the  picul  contains  from  1,000  to  2,000  sea-slugs.  The 
Dutch  Indies  produce  and  export  to  China  about  700  tons  per 
annum. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


119 


eat  them  any  more  than  do  the  Europeans.  Boiled, 
salted,  and  then  dried  or  smoked,  they  are  exported  to 
China,  where  they  fetch  a high  price.  Thousands  of  the 
seaboard  Javanese  live  by  the  trepang  fishery  alone. 

The  shell  of  the  turtle  ( Chelonia  imbricata)  is  almost 
entirely  exported  to  Europe  and  to  China ; but  the  shell 
of  the  common  tortoise  ( tutrugu ) is  often  sent  to  Sura- 
baja, where  it  is  made  into  combs,  boxes,  spoons,  &c. 

To  the  abundant  natural  resources  of  his  island  the 
Javanese  may  add  the  industry  of  stock-raising.  It  is 
true  that  his  lack  of  care  and  foresight  has  limited  the 
numbers  of  his  flocks  and  herds  and  has  failed  to  improve 
the  breeds  of  his  domestic  animals. 

The  most  useful  beast  of  all  from  the  native’s  point  of 
view  is  the  kerbau  (Malay),  or  kebo  (Javanese) ; the  buffalo, 
so  powerful  yet  so  gentle,  which  drags  the  heaviest  bur- 
dens with  a sure  foot  over  the  miry  roads  or  the  stony 
mountain  trails ; the  buffalo,  which  shares  his  labours ; 
the  buffalo  whose  meat,  if  a little  musky,  is  excellent 
whether  fresh  or  salted.  The  native  prefers  the  buffalo 
above  all  the  domestic  animals  ; the  bullock  ( sapi , or 
lembu),  less  vigorous  but  more  active,  is  still  better  as  a 
draught  animal  on  a good  road,  and  its  meat  is  far 
sweeter ; the  cow  is  regarded  purely  as  a reproductive 
animal,  as  the  Javanese  dislikes  milk  and  its  various 
products  ; the  goat  and  the  sheep  are  kept  more  for  the 
sake  of  their  meat  than  for  any  any  other  purpose ; and 
pigs  are  fed  only  for  sale  to  the  Chinese. 

The  horse  ( kuda  in  Malay,  dyaran  or  kapal  in  Javanese) 
is  a favourite  animal,  but  is  not  methodically  bred  or 
cared  for,  and  has  consequently  degenerated.  Formerly 
it  was  used  solely  as  a saddle-  or  pack-horse.  The 
Europeans  have  taught  the  Javanese  the  art  of  breaking 
it  to  go  in  harness  and  to  draw  burdens,  but  in  order  to 
preserve  the  species  have  forbidden  them  to  kill  it  for  the 
sake  of  its  flesh.  The  horses  of  Preanger,  which  have  an 
obvious  Arab  strain,  are  the  tallest  in  the  island  and 
are  well  proportioned,  but  otherwise  cannot  be  highly 
praised.  Those  of  Kedu,  which  have  been  improved  by 


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the  care  of  the  Susuhunans,  are  their  rivals  in  height 
and  are  still  better  proportioned  ; but  the  ordinary 
Javanese  horse  of  the  sawahs  (rice-fields)  or  the  moun- 
tains is  small  and  ugly,  but  sure-footed  and  enduring. 
It  is  certain  that  if  the  Javanese  native  would  refrain 
from  working  his  horse  too  young,  and  would  feed  it  in 
a rational  manner,  he  would  be  able  to  improve  the  race 
and  derive  from  it  incalculable  benefits. 


VI. 

Just  as  the  Javanese,  despite  his  love  of  the  soil,  prefers 
to  cultivate  only  so  much  of  it  as  will  satisfy  his  daily 
needs,  so  his  industry  also  is  limited  to  his  requirements. 
Each  village  has  its  blacksmith,  its  carpenter,  and  very 
often  its  potter  and  silversmith.  The  trade  guilds  in  the 
towns  may  contain  a certain  number  of  workers  in  each 
trade,  but  they  will  be  careful  to  produce  only  enough  to 
supply  the  usual  demand,  and  will  work  only  according 
to  tradition.  It  is  no  lack  of  taste  nor  of  ability  that 
keeps  them  to  these  beaten  tracks ; their  chiselled  and 
sculptured  gold  and  silver  work  is  often  excellent,  and 
the  women  who  work  at  the  looms  are  real  artists.  The 
two  industries  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Javanese,  and  in 
which  their  originality  is  most  plainly  shown,  are  the 
manufacture  of  the  krees,1  the  value  of  which  depends 

1 The  kriss,  or  krees,  is  the  characteristic  arm  of  the  Malay  races. 
It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  other  forms  of  sword  or  dagger 
used  in  the  Archipelago.  There  are  more  than  a hundred  kinds  of 
krees,  each  bearing  a different  name  according  to  the  shape  of  the 
blade,  guard,  and  scabbard.  The  blade,  which  is  commonly  12  to 
16  inches  in  length  and  always  flat,  is  straight  or  serpentine  in 
form,  and  is  usually  damascened  with  pamor,  a magnetic  iron  which 
comes  from  Luwu  (south  of  Celebes) : this  treatment  gives  the 
blade  a moiri,  or  watered,  surface.  The  grip,  or  hilt,  made  of  wood, 
horn,  ivory,  or  metal,  assumes  the  most  fantastic  forms  ; in  the  case 
of  a prince’s  or  wealthy  noble’s  krees  it  will  be  ornamented  with 
precious  stones.  The  scabbard  is  of  wood  and  covered  with  a 
sheath  of  suwasa  (bronze),  silver,  or  gold.  The  krees  is  not  merely 
an  arm,  but  a symbol  of  rank  and  authority  as  well,  as  the  sword 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


121 


upon  the  temper  of  the  weapon  and  the  material  and 
carving  of  the  handle,  and  the  ornamentation  of  stuffs 
by  the  batik  or  battek  process.  The  art  of  plaiting  and 
weaving  and  staining  mats  of  every  size  and  shape  and 
intended  for  all  manners  of  purposes  is  also  a widespread 
Javanese  industry;  but  it  is  not  peculiarly  Javanese,  being 
common  to  most  peoples  of  the  Far  East,  while  kreesses 
and  batiks 1 in  cloth  coloured  through  a mask  or  ground 
of  wax  are  exclusively  Javanese  industries. 

To  batik  signifies  to  cover  a cotton  fabric  with  a thin 
ground  of  wax  before  plunging  it  into  a bath  of  dye,  so 
as  to  preserve  from  the  latter  certain  parts  of  the  stuff, 
thus  forming  a design.  This  operation,  repeated  several 
times  in  succession,  but  with  a dye  of  different  colour  on 
each  occasion  and  with  the  stuff  re-coated  so  as  to  pre- 
serve different  portions  from  the  dye,  finally  produces  a 
design  which  is  often  of  real  artistic  value.  The  batik- 
maker — and  this  delicate  work  is  always  done  by  women 
— is  provided  with  a tyanting,  or  a little  cup  or  funnel  of 
the  thinnest  sheet-copper,  which  is  filled  with  white  wax 
in  a melted  condition.  This  wax  she  allows  to  trickle 
very  slowly  through  a slender  tube,  as  fine  as  the  point  of 
a pen  at  its  lower  extremity.  With  the  aid  of  this  little 
instrument — which  roughly  resembles  the  funnels  used 
for  the  sugar  icing  on  wedding-cakes — the  batiqueuse 
draws  her  design  on  the  cotton  fabric  in  a line  of  warm 
and  liquid  wax ; the  width  of  the  line  being  varied  by 

was  in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  in  Japan  within 
living  memory.  It  is  worn  in  various  manners,  which  are  regulated 
by  etiquette.  For  further  details  see  the  article  Wapens  der 
inlandsche  Bevolking  ( Encycl . v.  Ned.-Indie,  vol.  iv.  p.  686  et  seq.). 

1 The  Javanese  word  batik,  “ to  design,  trace,  paint,”  has  assumed 
the  technical  meaning  “ to  draw  upon  a cotton  cloth  with  molten 
wax.”  It  is  an  ingenious  process,  by  means  of  which  coloured 
stuffs  of  many  colours  and  a remarkable  variety  of  designs  are  pro- 
duced. The  following  work,  illustrated  with  coloured  plates  repre- 
senting some  of  the  finest  specimens,  includes  all  possible  informa- 
tion as  to  the  batik  industry  in  Java  : G.  P.  Rouffaer  and  Dr.  H.  H. 
Juynboll,  De  batik-kunst  in  Nederlandsch-Indie  en  haar  gescheidenis 
(Haarlem,  1900-1905,  large  4to). 


122 


JAVA 


using  a tyanting  with  a larger  or  smaller  vent.  When  the 
worker  has  traced  the  design  in  wax  upon  one  face  of  the 
cloth,  she  reproduces  it  by  the  same  means  upon  the 
other  face,  so  that  the  stuff  has  no  “wrong  side"  and 
may  be  used  with  either  side  uppermost.  The  piece  of 
cotton  with  its  design  in  wax  is  now  plunged  into  a vat 
containing  a dye  of  suitable  shade — usually  a red,  blue, 
or  brown — which  dyes  all  portions  that  are  not  covered 
by  the  waxen  design.  The  wax  is  removed  by  means  of 
boiling  water ; and  before  plunging  the  cloth  into  a 
second  vat  containing  dye  of  a different  shade  the 
design  is  continued  by  means  of  a fresh  application  of 
wax  in  all  the  necessary  parts.  By  repeated  applications 
of  wax  and  repeated  immersions  in  various  dyes  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  extremely  complex  designs,  which 
possess  a charm  all  their  own  and  are  gay  and  har- 
monious in  colour.1 

The  batik  process  entails  a traditional  technical  edu- 
cation and  considerable  taste  on  the  part  of  the  crafts- 
woman.  There  are  hundreds  of  accepted  batik  designs, 
certain  of  which  are  reserved  for  certain  articles  of 
clothing  or  even  for  certain* persons.  The  Susuhunan 
and  the  Sultan  of  the  Vorstenlanden  wear  batiks  of 
special  design  that  no  other  native  would  dare  to  wear, 
at  any  rate  in  the  Vorstenlanden  themselves.  More- 
over, Surakarta  and  Djokjakarta  boast  of  what  we  may 
justifiably  call  schools  of  design  and  colouring,  and 
their  batiks  compel  the  admiration  of  the  best  foreign 
connoisseurs.  Samarang,  although  its  batiks  are  rather 
more  gaudy,  still  maintains  the  high  reputation  of 
its  women  artists,  who  elsewhere,  and  especially  in 
Batavia,  are  now  allowing  themselves  to  be  influenced 
by  European  taste,  or  rather  by  European  commercial 

1 The  Dravidians  of  the  Coromandel  coast  (Tamils,  Telingas,  &c.) 
also  prepare  cloths  of  polychromatic  design  by  the  same  procedure, 
a very  faithful  and  detailed  description  of  which  has  been  preserved 
in  the  Letter  of  Pere  Coeurdoux,  missionary  of  the  Company  of 
Jesus,  to  Pere  du  Halde,  of  the  same  Company,  January  18,  1742 
( Lettres  idifiantes  et  curieuses,  t.  xxvi.,  Paris,  1743,  p.  172  et  seq.). 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


123 


designs,  which  do  not  in  the  least  represent  the  art  of 
Europe,  and  are  losing  their  originality.  One  of  the 
causes  of  this  decadence  has  been  the  introduction  of 
printed  calicoes  with  which  the  European  houses  have 
flooded  the  markets  of  Java.  The  natives,  tempted  by 
their  low  prices,  have  bought  them,  and  have  immediately 
set  to  work  to  imitate  them,  and  by  employing  the 
simplest  means  they  produce  imitations  equal  to  the 
European  goods,  but  at  a still  lower  price.  The  mer- 
chants, in  consequence,  have  gained  nothing  by  the 
transaction,  but  the  delicate  art  of  the  batik  has  greatly 
suffered  by  the  introduction  of  this  rubbish.  Already 
Cheribon  and  Indramaju  have  practically  ceased  to 
produce  the  batiks  for  which  they  were  formerly  so 
renowned,  and  which  used  to  sell  for  as  much  as  the 
piece  ; indeed,  unless  something  is  done  to  arrest  the 
decadence  of  the  process,  these  examples  of  a charming 
and  consummate  art  will  in  fifty  or  sixty  years’  time  be 
found  only  in  the  kratons  of  the  princes  and  the  cabinets 
of  European  collectors. 

The  Javanese  batik  their  cotton  stuffs  on  one  or  both 
sides  only  for  the  very  practical  purpose  of  beautifying 
their  garments.  Their  costume  is  simple,  and  is  the 
same  for  both  sexes,  a fact  which  at  first  leaves  the 
foreigner  subject  to  awkward  misunderstandings.  The 
basis  of  the  costume,  indeed  sometimes  the  whole 
costume,  is  the  sarong;  that  is,  a kind  of  skirt  falling 
from  the  waist,  or  sometimes  above  it,  to  the  feet.  When 
open  in  front  it  is  called  the  kain  pandjang.  Sarongs 
and  skirts  worn  by  the  people  are  often  of  a deep  blue 
colour ; among  the  rich,  in  the  east  and  centre  of  the 
island,  the  stuff  is  batik’ d;  in  the  west  it  is  often  checkered 
or  striped,  the  checks  or  stripes  being  woven  in  the  stuff. 
Checks  are  common  among  the  Sundanese.  To  the 
sarong,  the  man  adds  a sort  of  vest  of  white  cotton 
( kutungan ) or  coloured  cotton  print,  or  a kind  of  short 
jacket  of  white  cotton  or  print,  with  wide  sleeves  and 
a standing  collar,  fastened  at  the  throat  and  loose  on 
the  hips.  Native  officials  replace  this  by  a cloth  or  cotton 


124 


JAVA 


jacket  with  narrow  sleeves,  fastened  up  with  buttons 
ornamented  with  a W and  a crown. 

The  man’s  long  hair  is  done  up  in  a chignon  on  the 
top  of  the  head,  and  hidden  by  a kerchief,  more  or  less 
artistically  batik'd,  the  corners  of  which  emerge  like  two 
wings  on  either  side  of  the  nape.  As  a defence  against 
the  sun  or  rain,  the  native  often  wears  a wide  hat  of 
bamboo  fibre  or  plaited  pandanus  leaf,  either  plain  or  in 
several  bright  colours.  This  hat  may  be  more  than  a 
yard  in  diameter,  when  it  forms  an  excellent  substitute 
for  an  umbrella  or  parasol.  Native  dandies  and  officials 
replace  this  hat,  in  the  towns,  by  a peaked  cap,  which 
is  ornamented,  in  the  case  of  the  officials,  by  the  W 
surmounted  by  a crown. 

The  official  headgear  for  state  occasions  is  a kind  of 
fez  : a truncated  cone,  called  a kuluk,  covered  with  trans- 
parent starched  muslin.  In  the  case  of  princes  the  kuluk 
is  ornamented  with  vertical  stripes  of  gold,  and  is  known 
as  the  kanigara.  A krees,  passed  through  the  girdle  and 
carried  behind  the  left  haunch,  completes  the  toilet  of 
every  Javanese  freeman.  The  krees,  which  the  Madurese, 
and  still  more  the  Malay,  will  draw  at  the  first  word  that 
he  chooses  to  think  insulting,  is  for  the  Javanese,  as  we 
have  seen,  primarily  an  ornament. 

Personages  of  high  rank  are  always  accompanied  by 
a parasol  (payong ),  their  rank  being  denoted  by  its  height, 
colour,  and  wealth  of  gold.  Priests  and  Hadjis  commonly 
wear  the  Arab  costume,  and  thereby  gain  no  little  con- 
sideration ; but  some  Javanese  wear  it  who  have  never 
been  to  Mecca. 

Women  add  to  the  sarong  a wide  bandage,  of  blue 
cloth  upon  ordinary  occasions,  but  in  batik  on  feast  days. 
This  is  called  the  kemben,  and  is  wound  round  the  bust, 
under  the  arms,  so  as  to  flatten  the  breasts,  a full  bosom 
being  unappreciated  by  the  Javanese.  Some  women  also 
wear  the  kutang,  a kind  of  bodice  or  tunic,  and  still  more 
frequently  the  kelambi,  a kind  of  camisole,  in  dark  blue 
cotton,  black  silk,  or  velvet  of  some  dark  shade,  which 
is  cut  low  at  the  neck.  It  falls  to  the  knees,  and  the 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


125 


narrow  sleeves  are  closed  with  strings.  An  indispensable 
article  of  the  feminine  toilet  is  the  slendang:  a scarf  in 
batik , often  ornamented  with  fringes ; something  over 
20  inches  wide,  in  colour  brown,  green,  or  yellow,  or, 
among  the  poorer  classes,  a deep  blue.  It  is  sometimes 
made  of  silk,  sometimes  of  cotton,  and  serves  for  all 
kinds  of  purposes.  The  well-dressed  woman  wears  it 
simply  as  an  ornament ; the  women  of  the  people  wear 
it  across  one  shoulder,  like  a bandolier,  and  use  it  for 
carrying  the  last-born  baby,  the  goods  they  have  bought 
or  are  going  to  sell,  and  so  on. 

The  Javanese  woman  is  always  bareheaded  in  the 
presence  of  the  Javanese  man  ; but  she  decks  her  hair 
with  freshly  plucked  flowers  or  ornamental  pins.  Like 
the  women  of  all  countries,  she  loves  necklaces,  rings, 
and  bracelets  of  all  kinds,  and  heavy  earrings  of  a peculiar 
type,  which  stretch  the  lobe  of  the  ear  to  a mere  thread. 
She  shelters  herself  from  the  rain  beneath  an  umbrella  of 
oiled  paper. 

Men  and  women  go  barefoot,  including  the  native 
soldiers  of  the  colonial  army,  excepting  only  the 
Amboinese.1 

A few  exquisites  wear  slippers  or  shoes  of  European 
model,  and  their  use  is  becoming  more  and  more  general 
among  the  more  distinguished  natives,  although  all 
natives  must  appear  barefooted  at  the  courts  of  the 
Susuhunan  and  the  Sultan  ; and  before  such  native 
notables  as  the  regents,  &c.,  all  inferiors  must  appear 
with  bare  feet. 


VII. 

Although  the  life  of  a Javanese  village  is  never  intensely 
laborious  it  is,  in  a sense,  a life  of  continuous  labour ; 
for  the  Javanese  does  not  feel  compelled  to  abstain  from 
labour  entirely  upon  any  day  of  the  week — not  even  on  a 
Friday — to  satisfy  his  religious  beliefs.  He  works  as 

1 This  is  partly  because  so  many  of  the  Amboinese  are  Christians, 
and  partly  because  they  pretend  to  give  their  services  in  Netherlands 
India  as  allies,  not  as  subjects ; as  equals,  not  as  a conquered  race. 


126 


JAVA 


long  as  he  needs  to  work  ; but  only  too  often  only  just  so 
long.  Neither  is  his  labour  a melancholy  affair;  for  the 
severer  agricultural  tasks,  such  as  the  transplanting  or 
harvesting  the  rice,  are  performed  in  common  ; all  the 
people  of  the  dessa  help  one  another,  and  enjoy  a banquet 
at  the  end  of  all.  Again,  all  the  villagers  share  in  the 
same  pleasures  ; no  feast,  marriage,  or  circumcision  takes 
place  without  the  presence  of  the  whole  village,  or  at 
least  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants. 

These  holidays  are  numerous,  precisely  because  the 
Javanese  is  not  fanatically  fond  of  work.  But  they  are 
not  uproarious ; the  traveller  is  always  surprised  to 
witness  the  heartfelt  gaiety — a gaiety  without  shouting 
and  screaming,  without  guffaws  and  shrieks  of  laughter — 
of  this  gentle  and  polished  people.  They  are  as  quiet  in 
their  gaiety  or  their  anger  as  the  birds  of  their  country, 
whose  plumage  is  so  beautiful,  but  which  are  almost 
songless. 

The  people  crowd  through  the  bazaar  or  upon  the 
aloun-aloun,  but  with  a gentle,  noiseless  movement ; their 
inner  satisfaction  is  only  betrayed  by  the  fact  that  their 
clothing  is  more  ornamental  than  usual  and  their  faces 
brighter. 

If  Korea  is  entitled  the  Empire  of  the  Quiet  Morning, 
Java  deserves  the  name  of  the  Island  of  Silent  Serenity. 

Among  the  habitual  pleasures  of  the  Javanese,  tobacco 
( roko ) and  the  betel-nut  ( sirih ) have  passed  into  the  rank 
of  necessities,  so  general  is  the  use  of  these  two  stimu- 
lants, and  particularly  that  of  the  latter.  Betel  is  used  by 
women  as  much  as  by  men,  and  both  use  it  continually. 
From  the  poorest  coolie  to  the  Susuhunan,  every  Javanese 
is  always  chewing  this  refreshing  condiment,  which 
blackens  the  teeth,  however,  and  provokes  an  abundant 
flow  of  reddened  saliva.  At  all  domestic  rejoicings  the  sirih 
is  offered  to  all  the  guests  ; and  the  accessories  necessary 
to  betel-chewing  accompany  the  great  wherever  they  go. 

The  use  of  opium,  which  is  by  no  means  so  harmless, 
has,  unfortunately,  been  becoming  more  and  more  usual 
during  the  last  twenty  years.  For  this  reason  all  those 


-AMEl.AN,  OR  NATIVE  ORCHESTRA. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


127 


who  concern  themselves  with  the  welfare  of  the  natives 
are  anxious  that  the  Chinese  should  be  forced  to  abandon 
the  growth  of  the  poppy  in  order  to  restrain  the  abuse  of 
the  drug.1 

Dice,  cards,  quail-  and  cock-fights,2  and  tops  with  num- 
bered sides,  on  the  stoppage  of  which  bets  are  laid,  are 
still  favourite  means  of  amusement  with  the  Javanese 
native,  who  will  sometimes,  in  the  excitement  of  play, 
ruin  himself  within  a few  hours.  We  must  not  be 
surprised  to  find  such  amusements  severely  proscribed 
by  the  better  classes  of  the  natives,  who  are  to-day  so 
anxious  to  bring  about  a popular  renascence  ; but  it  will 
certainly  be  no  easy  task  to  wean  the  people  from  such 
amusements,  as  the  native  of  almost  every  quarter  of  the 
Far  East  has  a regrettable  passion  for  games  of  chance. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Javanese  of  the  people,  more  on 
account  of  his  natural  sobriety  than  out  of  religious 
scruple,  is  not  addicted  to  fermented  and  alcoholic 
drinks  ; he  leaves  them  to  the  mighty  and  to  the  princes 
of  his  race,  who,  despite  the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  are 
not  reluctant  to  imitate  the  European  in  this  particular. 

Performances  on  the  gamelan  3 and  the  representations 
of  the  wayang  are  the  favourite  amusements  of  the 
people,  and  on  special  occasions  their  chiefs  and  princes 
entertain  them  by  means  of  their  own  troupes. 

1 Concerning  opium  and  its  use  in  the  Dutch  Indies,  see  E. 
Metzger,  Das  Opium  in  Indonesien  (Rev.  Col.  intern.  1887,  II., 
p.  175)  ; J.  L.  Zegers,  Hit  opium-vraagstuk  in  Nederlandsch  Oost- 
Indie  (Nimeguen,  1890). 

* Officially  prohibited  in  certain  Residencies,  they  none  the  less 
continue  in  secret. 

3 The  full  gamelan  appears  to  be  a development  of  the  xylophone. 
As  we  gather  from  M.  Caboton’s  description,  the  basis  of  the  gamelan 
is  the  ordinary  xylophone  ; in  the  full  gamelan  the  note  is  produced 
by  one  of  a series  of  blades,  tubes,  gongs,  or  basins.  The  illustration 
facing  p.  127  shows  a series  of  “xylophones”  of  different  materials; 
some  having  wooden  notes,  some  slips  of  metal,  some  a series  of  tubes 
bedded  in  cushions,  and  some  a series  of  bronze  vessels  not  unlike 
square  tureens.  The  word  gamelan  means  sometimes  a single  “xylo- 
phone,” sometimes  a whole  orchestra  of  “ xylophones  ” of  various 
materials,  including  gongs,  suspended  tubes,  a viol,  &c. — [Trans.] 


128 


JAVA 


The  gamelan  is  a complete  orchestra  composed  of  an 
oblong  plank  of  wood,  supported  on  four  legs,  and 
with  raised  edges.  Across  this  plank,  and  resting  upon 
little  cushions,  are  fixed  a series  of  blades  or  slips  of  vary- 
ing lengths  ; one  set  will  be  of  wood,  another  of  copper, 
others  of  bronze  ; some  will  have  affixed  to  them  vertical 
tubes  of  bamboo,  which  serve  as  resonators.  Each  blade 
or  slip  gives  out,  when  struck,  a note  consecutive  to  that 
produced  by  its  neighbour.  The  gamelan  may  also  in- 
clude a series  of  bronze  basins,  some  wide  and  shallow, 
others  deep  and  narrow ; or  these  may  be  replaced  by 
suspended  gongs.  A viol  with  two  strings  and  a bow, 
known  as  the  rebab,  is  used  to  play  the  air  when  the 
gamelan  accompanies  the  voice.  All  the  instruments  of 
the  gamelan,  which  are  struck  by  hammers  of  different 
materials,  according  to  the  tonality  desired,  and  accord- 
ing to  a very  abstruse  technique,  produce  a shrill  and 
somewhat  melancholy  music,  which  is  at  first  surprising 
to  a foreign  ear,  but  which  is  by  no  means  without  a 
charm  of  its  own.1 

At  domestic  gatherings  in  the  villages  the  natives  have 
usually  to  content  themselves  with  the  rebab  (or  viol),  the 
flute,  or  with  drums  of  various  size,  shape,  and  tone  ; but 
when  a chief  entertains  those  under  his  administration  at  a 
wayang  show,  accompanied  by  the  gamelan,  the  Javanese 
native  passes  a delightful  evening  ; but  the  entertain- 
ment, to  be  precise,  often  lasts  far  into  the  night. 

1 Other  instruments  which  may  be  included  in  the  gamelan  are  : 
angklung,  or  “ sonorous  tubular  gongs,  suspended  in  a framework,” 
bonang,  “a  peal  of  bells,"  tjelempung,  “a  psalterion,”  ketuk,  kenong, 
“ bells  ” ; saron,  “ a series  of  metallic  tongues  or  blades  ” ; demung, 
“ the  same,  but  deeper  in  tone  ” ; gong,  “ a thick  bamboo  tube  which 
is  struck  to  obtain  the  bass  note  ” ; ketnpul,  “ a little  gong  ” ; kendang, 
“ a drum,  the  two  heads  of  which  are  of  unequal  diameters."  Land, 
Notes  sur  la  musique  de  lile  de  Java,  says  that  this  music  “ is  a 
subject  well  worth  the  serious  interest  of  the  musician.”  See  also 
E.  Dulaurier,  Musique  Javanaise.  N otice  sur  un  gamelan  ou  collection 
d’ instruments  de  musique  javanaise,  rapportee  de  I'ile  de  Java  a Paris, 
en  1845,  in  the  Revue  de  VOrient,  de  l' Alger ie  et  des  Colonies,  17th  year 
(Paris  and  Algiers,  1859). 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


129 


The  wayang  is  a puppet-show,  a theatre  of  marionettes. 
The  puppets  are  perfectly  flat,  with  movable  arms  ; their 
faces  and  limbs  are  fantastically  deformed — in  order,  say 
the  Javanese,  to  evade  the  Musulman  law,  which  forbids 
the  reproduction  of  the  human  body.  They  are  some- 
times made  of  buffalo  hide,  sometimes  of  wood,  brightly 
painted  and  gilded,  and  often  luxuriously  dressed  ; they 
are  manipulated  behind  a screen  upon  which  the  light  of 
a copper  lantern  throws  their  shadows.  The  women 
watch  the  drama  from  in  front  of  the  screen,  the  men 
from  behind  it,  according  to  the  position  of  the  marion- 
ettes themselves. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  wayang,  which  are  not  very 
clearly  distinguished  ; and  a different  tonality  of  the 
gamelan  is  appropriate  to  each.  An  actor  recites  the 
poem  or  drama  which  the  marionettes  perform,  interrupting 
it  considerably  by  long  personal  improvisations.  In  the 
best  representations  the  subject  is  always  borrowed  from 
the  Hindu  epics  of  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Ramayana, 
with  the  alterations  and  distortions  for  which  the  Javanese 
mind  has  been  responsible  during  the  centuries  which 
have  passed  since  the  extinction  of  the  Hindu  faith  ; or 
from  the  heroic  and  legendary  history  of  Java  before  the 
foundation  of  the  Empire  of  Madjapahit — that  is,  before 
the  ninth  century  a.d.  ; or  sometimes,  but  more  rarely, 
from  the  history  of  the  aforesaid  Empire.  This  choice 
shows  how  deeply  the  Hindu  domination  has  im- 
pressed the  Javanese  mind.  The  part  played  by  Islam  in 
this  dramatic  literature  is  inconsiderable,  and  is  usually 
limited  to  the  confiscation  of  the  miracles  performed  by 
the  demi-gods  of  India  to  the  profit  of  Allah  ; and 
occasionally,  especially  during  the  last  twelve  years,  the 
dalan,  or  reciter,  improvises,  between  two  lines  of  some 
traditional  poem,  some  malicious  reflection  upon  his 
European  masters. 

When  the  wayang  is  not  available,  the  Javanese  turns 
cheerfully  to  the  topeng  dalang,  in  which  masked  actors 
play  in  pantomime  a drama  which  the  dalan  recites 
in  a loud  voice  ; or  sometimes  the  actors  themselves 

io 


130 


JAVA 


speak,  and  give  their  performances  in  the  open,  sur- 
rounded by  a circle  of  auditors  who  hang  upon  their  every 
word.  They  enjoy  almost  as  naively  the  dances  of  the 
ronggengs — public  dancing-girls — whose  methods  always 
astonish  and  disappoint  the  uninstructed  European  ; for 
the  Javanese  dance  consists  of  a series  of  plastic  and 
mimetic  poses,  which  require,  even  more  than  Javanese 
music,  a previous  initiation  on  the  part  of  a foreigner. 
Even  at  the  bedayas  of  the  sovereigns  of  the  Vorstenlanden 
and  a few  of  the  regents,  who  preserve  the  implacable 
traditions  of  the  classic  dance,  the  foreigner  is  usually  less 
pleased  than  astonished. 

Wayangs,  gamelans,  dancers,  and  distributions  of  food 
and  of  betel  form  the  regular  programme  of  the  fetes 
which  the  notables  and  the  wealthy  offer  to  the  people  on 
occasions  which  are  as  varied  as  they  are  numerous. 
The  birthdays  of  the  Queen-Mother  and  the  Queen  of 
Holland,  and  that  of  the  little  Princess  Juliana,  give  the 
highly  placed  Javanese  an  opportunity  of  testifying  his 
loyalty  and  of  giving  pleasure  to  the  people.  Other 
occasions  for  such  festivals  are  : his  appointment  to  any 
post  under  the  Government ; his  marriage  ; the  birth  of 
his  children  ; the  circumcision  of  his  boys  ; the  declara- 
tion of  the  nubility  of  his  daughters  ; the  marriage  of  a son 
or  a daughter  ; the  filing  of  his  teeth  ; the  conclusion  of  a 
lucky  business  affair  ; the  recovery  from  an  illness  ; the 
return  from  a journey  ; the  rice  harvest ; the  building  of  a 
house  ; in  short,  the  Javanese  has  a genius  for  discover- 
ing such  occasions  ; he  finds  them  in  the  most  trifling 
details  of  his  life,  and  celebrates  them  with  enthusiasm. 
On  every  step  of  the  social  ladder  the  Javanese  rejoices  at 
the  festivals  of  his  superiors  : very  often  at  those  of  his 
inferiors,  when  he  wishes  to  honour  the  latter.  The 
result  is  that  although  there  are  very  few  actual  religious 
holidays,  the  Javanese  is  continually  junketing  ; a course 
which  keeps  him  from  his  work,  and  is  often  absolutely 
ruinous. 

Very  probably  nearly  all  these  festivals  are  of  remote 
origin,  some  arising  out  of  the  Islamite  code  of  manners  ; 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


131 


adapted  indifferently,  they  allow  one  to  guess  at  a sur- 
viving basis  in  the  ancient  animistic  cult  of  Java.  They 
open  with  prayers  recited  by  the  imaum  of  the  village,  or 
in  his  absence  by  some  person  distinguished  for  his 
piety ; and  one  may  suppose  that  their  generic  name  of 
slamettans,  or  thanksgiving  feasts,  sanctifies  the  banquet 
which  is  the  necessary  accompaniment  of  the  feast,  and 
often  its  object.  Adat  (custom)  has  fixed  the  number, 
nature,  quantity,  and  preparation  of  the  sacrificial  dishes, 
of  which  the  spirits  enjoy  the  subtile  and  the  sacrificers 
the  material  portion.  In  the  courts  of  the  princes  the 
religious  character  of  the  sacrificial  repast  offered  to  the 
spirits  is  accentuated  by  the  care  taken  to  reserve  a portion 
of  the  dishes  for  the  priests  and  santris  (holy  men). 

Generally  the  giver  of  a slamettan  bears  the  whole  cost ; 
but  often  he  cannot  afford  to  do  so,  when  he  will  arrange 
with  several  friends  to  give  the  feast  at  their  common 
expense.  Each  one  performs  his  share  by  bringing  one 
of  the  required  courses,  and  the  sacrificial  feast  becomes 
something  like  a picnic.  The  gamelan  and  the  wayang 
which  nearly  always  terminate  the  feast  add  to  the  joyful 
impression  produced  by  the  whole. 

We  can  understand  why  Javanese  reformers  are  so 
anxious  to  put  down  the  constant  succession  of  slamettans , 
which  empty  the  native's  slender  purse,  and  accustom 
him  to  idleness  and  imprudence. 

VIII. 

The  Europeans,  who  in  all  their  colonies  are  very  loth 
to  allow  the  natives  any  virtues,  do  not  fail  to  criticise 
many  other  points  of  the  Javanese  character. 

Some  reproach  him  roundly  for  his  gentle  manners, 
which  to  them  seem  to  border  upon  cowardice  ; for  his 
incurable  apathy  and  lack  of  foresight ; for  his  faintly 
servile  and  hypocritical  politeness,  his  absurd  veneration 
of  birth,  his  immoderate  appetite  for  honours  ; for  the 
fact  that  the  only  motive  capable  of  awaking  him  out  of 
his  lethargy  is  the  hope  of  realising  that  secret  ambition 


132 


JAVA 


of  every  Javanese  : to  become  an  official  and  to  win 
the  right  to  a payong  (a  State  umbrella)  of  respectable 
diameter. 

Perhaps  there  is  hardly  one  of  these  grievances  which 
the  history  of  Java  does  not  justify. 

It  would  be  surprising  if  the  Javanese  were  instinctively 
a coward.  All  his  past  history  is  full  of  interminable 
wars,  a fact  which  at  all  events  denotes  a certain  military 
aptitude ; doubtless  accompanied,  at  the  end  of  ages  of 
butchery,  by  a fatigued  philosophy.  The  race  which 
won  the  military  glory  of  the  conquering  empires  of 
Madjapahit  and  Mataram,  and  which  sustained  the 
desperate  war  against  the  Dutch  which  lasted  from  1825 
until  1830,  having  at  its  head  such  leaders  as  Dipo 
Negoro  and  the  young  and  heroic  Sentot,  is  hardly  a 
nation  of  the  peace-at-any-price  variety ; and  its  men  are 
not  of  a spirit  that  will  fly  at  the  least  threat.  Those 
who  know  the  race  well  know  the  danger  of  exasperating 
its  apparently  placid  nature.  The  Javanese  has  retained, 
through  his  warlike  and  tumultuous  past,  those  qualities 
of  a good  soldier  which  make  him  an  invaluable  recruit 
for  the  Dutch  Colonial  army.  He  is  brave  somewhat  as 
the  ancient  Greek  was  brave,  who  would  rush  upon  the 
enemy  with  heroic  courage  when  he  saw  that  victory  was 
possible,  but  who  would  fly  without  shame  from  an  enemy 
obviously  too  powerful.  He  has  no  uncontrollable  love 
of  danger  ; perhaps  because  he  saw  long  ago  that  his  life 
was  too  readily  sacrificed  by  others  ; but  his  sense  of 
discipline  rarely  allows  him  to  abandon  a post,  however 
dangerous.  As  for  his  fearing  “ my  Lord  the  Tiger  ” — 
as  all  the  natives  of  the  Far  East  fear  him — and  attempting 
to  flatter  him  by  soft  words  and  courteous  phrases,  the 
matter  is  easily  comprehensible  in  a country  in  which  the 
tiger’s  victims  are  counted  by  hundreds  year  after  year. 
The  Javanese  feels  himself  naked  and  defenceless  before 
so  formidable  an  enemy,  and  is  afraid ; the  European,  of 
a different  mettle,  armed  with  a heavy  rifle,  should  cer- 
tainly encounter  the  tiger  with  a better  countenance.  It 
is,  perhaps,  hardly  fair  to  speak  of  the  cowardice  of  the 


A BATIK  FACTORY. 


To  face  p.  132. 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


133 


one  or  the  courage  of  the  other  ; to  do  so  would  be  to 
ignore  the  circumstances. 

The  regrettable  lack  of  foresight  of  the  Javanese  is  less 
deniable.  The  Javanese  is  incapable  of  taking  care  for 
the  morrow,  of  saving  for  the  lean  days,  or  of  economising. 
He  will,  as  likely  as  not,  spend  the  savings  of  a month  or 
a year  in  the  course  of  a few  hours  ; and  in  order  to  play 
at  dice,  or  give  a ceremonial  banquet,  he  will  borrow 
money  at  the  most  usurious  interest,  and  is  seldom  able 
to  resist  the  offers  of  goods  on  credit  which  the  Chinese 
and  Arab  are  so  generous  in  making  him.  But  we  must 
remember  that  the  Javanese  native  was  exploited  for 
centuries  by  all  his  rulers  ; that  he  has  had  to  work  for 
them  unremittingly  ; that  he  could  call  nothing  but  his 
life  his  own  ; and  we  must  not  forget  that  slavery  was 
officially  abolished  only  as  lately  as  i860.  Such  a record 
of  poverty  would  hardly  teach  the  race  economy,  even 
admitting  that  economy  were  possible.  The  native  knew 
that  he  could  never  save  for  his  own  benefit,  and  hence 
the  habit  of  never  saving  at  all.  But  why  should  a man 
save  when  he  can  live  on  a handful  of  rice  and  a few 
bananas  ? However,  since  prolonged  contact  with  the 
Dutch  has  revealed  new  sources  of  pleasure  and  new 
necessities,  and  since  the  Dutch  Government  has  been 
occupying  itself  seriously  in  bettering  the  lot  of  the 
native,  and  not  merely  the  yield  of  the  soil,  the  Javanese 
is  beginning  to  meditate  upon  the  question  of  saving,  if 
only  to  enjoy  himself  the  better  on  special  occasions. 
Reputed  idle  and  apathetic,  although  he  works  under  a 
fiery  sky,  and  often  under  deadly  conditions,  he  will  nowa- 
days travel  long  distances  the  moment  he  hears  of  an 
offer  of  good  wages.  Even  from  the  central  provinces 
he  will  set  out  at  the  time  of  the  rice  or  sugar-cane  har- 
vest, often  travelling  as  far  as  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Peninsula,  on  to  Malang,  or  even  to  Surabaja  and  Sama- 
rang  ; in  short,  wherever  he  can  earn  3 to  5 francs  a day 
(2s.  5d.  to  4s.).  The  few  savings-banks  already  opened 
with  a view  to  develop  the  prosperity  of  the  natives 
were  at  first  regarded  with  a certain  amount  of  sus- 


134 


JAVA 


picion,  but  lately  the  deposits  have  been  larger  each 
year. 

It  is  hardly  possible  as  yet  to  expect  democratic  ideas 
or  a passionate  love  of  independence  from  a race  formed 
first  by  the  Hindus  and  their  oppressive  caste  system, 
and  then  by  Islam  with  its  fundamental  fatalism  : a race 
which  for  twenty  centuries  has  been  governed  by  greedy 
autocrats  or  disdainful  masters.  For  this  fact  the  Dutch 
may  well  be  thankful ; for  if,  in  addition  to  their  numerical 
strength,  the  Javanese  had  possessed  the  indomitable 
temper  of  the  Achinese,  no  European  Power  could  ever 
have  settled  in  the  island.  Gentle  and  patient  by  nature, 
the  Javanese  have  been  crushed  and  enslaved  during  the 
whole  of  their  long  history  ; but  it  would  be  unjust  to 
call  them  servile  or  hypocritical  or  cowardly,  because 
they  treat  their  masters  to-day  with  the  marks  of  deference 
which  they  showed  their  masters  of  long  ago  ; a deference 
which  does  not  signify  the  servility  which  some  profess 
to  behold  in  it,  but  merely  a venerable  tradition  of  polite- 
ness. It  is  as  well  to  note  that  those  who  complain  the 
most  of  the  factitious  quality  of  Javanese  politeness  would 
be  the  first  to  complain  were  it  lacking  towards  them- 
selves. They  would  regard  such  a lack  as  an  insult, 
almost  as  a crime. 

On  the  other  hand,  nothing  amazes  them  so  much  as 
the  smouldering  rancour  which  insulting  words  or  be- 
haviour will  evoke  in  the  hearts  of  such  people,  for  whom 
good  manners  and  the  distinction  of  classes  are  still  the 
foundation  of  the  social  system,  and  who,  having  done 
what  they  conceive  their  duty  by  the  Europeans  in 
treating  them  with  every  shade  of  intentional  courtesy, 
do  not  receive  in  return  the  consideration  which  they 
consider  their  due. 

Their  avid  appetite  for  honours  and  outward  distinc- 
tions, their  hunger  for  umbrellas  ( payongs ) and  promotion 
in  the  grades  of  official  hierarchy,  is  explicable  in  the 
light  of  their  past,  for  they  have  always  been  accustomed 
to  see  these  signs  accompanied  by  the  reality  and  enjoy- 
ment of  power,  with  all  its  abuses.  We  must  recognise, 


THE  NATIVES  OF  JAVA 


135 


moreover,  that  the  present  has  been  so  far  unable  to 
accomplish  very  much  in  the  way  of  modifying  the  con- 
ception inherited  from  the  autocracies  of  the  past,  and 
from  the  traditions  of  Hinduism  and  Islam.  The  Java- 
nese issues  from  his  lethargy  and  progresses  in  culture 
and  initiative  only  when  self-interest  draws  him.  This  is 
a regrettable  fact  : but  it  is  also  true  of  the  majority 
of  Europeans,  whose  conceptions,  from  different  motives, 
are  becoming  more  and  more  utilitarian,  while  purely 
disinterested  culture  is  becoming  rare. 

The  Javanese  does  not  even  seek  to  improve  his  equip- 
ment with  a view  to  enriching  himself  by  a praiseworthy 
commercial  activity,  or  a better  application  of  agricul- 
tural methods  ; he  dreams,  above  all,  of  becoming  an 
official,  of  wearing  a uniform.  This  is  again  regrettable  ; 
but  this  also  is  a common  failing  elsewhere  than  under 
the  tropics.  But  the  day  may  come,  even  in  the  colonies, 
when,  with  the  same  native  hierarchy,  and  at  the  instance 
of  the  rulers  who  are  now  so  politically  careful  not 
to  shatter  the  old  Javanese  conception,  we  shall  see  the 
farmer  or  the  self-made  merchant  treated  by  the  public 
authorities  with  the  same  benevolence  and  consideration 
as  the  most  indifferent  mantri. 

As  long  as  officialism  continues  to  offer  the  double 
advantages  of  material  security  and  a satisfied  vanity,  it  is 
unjust  to  reproach  the  Javanese  with  regarding  it  as  the 
sole  end  of  his  efforts.  It  would  be  absurd  to  blame  the 
Javanese  for  taking  a plain,  direct  view  of  his  immediate 
interests,  and  to  expect  him,  after  centuries  of  veneration 
of  power  and  authority  in  its  slightest  emanations — a 
veneration  encouraged  by  the  Dutch  themselves — to 
awaken  suddenly  to  a radically  antithetical  conception  of 
rational  liberty  and  individual  initiative.  He  must  first 
receive  or  give  himself  a long  and  difficult  education. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 

I.  The  religious  question  in  Java  is  involved  in  the  historic 
evolution  of  the  masses.  The  religion  of  Java  is  a sincere 
Islamism,  modified  by  the  survivals  of  earlier  cults;  tolerant 
and  kindly,  like  the  character  of  the  nation. — II.  How  the 
Dutch  Indies  escaped  Christianity. — III.  The  problem  of 
education  in  Java ; its  various  phases  since  the  Dutch  occu- 
pation.— IV.  The  awakening  of  the  Javanese  people  and 
their  leaders  ; their  claims. 


I. 

It  is  difficult  to  acquire  a satisfactory  conception  of  the 
Javanese  mentality  unless  we  allow  for  the  degree  of  its 
religious  and  intellectual  development,  and  for  the  influ- 
ence which  the  Dutch  have  brought  to  bear  upon  both. 

The  Javanese,  like  the  Sundanese  and  Madurese,  are 
all,  with  the  exception  of  a negligible  minority,  earnest 
Mahomedans.  Their  Islamism  is  sincere  rather  than 
fervid,  and  is  modified  by  the  surviving  traces  of  other 
cults  which  corresponded  to  other  periods  of  their  past. 

Although  we  cannot  say  with  certainty  whence  the 
Javanese  originated,  nor  when  they  gained  possession 
of  their  island,  it  is  at  least  practically  certain  that  they 
practised,  in  the  first  instance,  a more  or  less  crude  form 
of  animism,  doubtless  very  similar  to  that  which  still  sur- 
vives among  the  Dyaks,  Bataks,  Alfurs  and  other  races 
of  the  Archipelago.1  A number  of  rites  and  usages 

1 A very  active  Christian  and  Mahomedan  propaganda  has  been 
carried  on  for  a long  time  among  these  peoples,  and  has  succeeded, 
especially  among  the  Bataks,  as  the  various  works  published  of  late 
years  by  explorers  and  missionaries  testify. 

136 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


137 


borrowed  from  this  ancient  cult,  and  paralleled  by 
the  modern  animistic  cults  of  the  above  peoples,  persist 
to  this  day  in  Javanese  domestic  life,  in  the  shape  of 
numberless  popular  superstitions. 

From  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  according 
to  the  most  plausible  conjectures,  down  to  the  thirteenth 
or  fourteenth  century,  Java  and  the  surrounding  islands 
professed  the  Hindu  or  Brahministic  faith;  and  towards 
the  fifth  century  the  Buddhism  of  the  south  of  India  was 
also  introduced.  This  Hindu  civilisation,  of  which  the 
supreme  political  expression  was  to  be  found  in  the 
empires  of  Tumapel  and  Madjapahit,  while  its  supreme 
artistic  expression  was  manifested  by  Prambanan  and 
Boro-Budur,  sets  its  mark  deeply  upon  the  race  ; even 
to  this  day  its  inspiration  is  to  be  found  in  the  social 
conceptions,  the  history,  the  literature,  and  the  theatre 
of  Java ; it  gave  the  Javanese  his  alphabet,  and  his 
ancient  tongue,  or  the  Kawi;1 * 3  and  his  two  forms  of  cus- 
tomary idiom— the  kromo,  or  High- Javanese,  employed 
in  addressing  a superior,  and  the  ngoko,  or  Low-Javanese, 
employed  in  speaking  with  an  inferior — are  both  full  of 
Sanscrit  roots. 

Towards  the  thirteenth  century  probably  Islamism  was 
first  preached  by  Persian  and  Arabian  merchants,  in  the 
ports  of  the  Far  East  with  which  they  traded.  It 
slowly  made  its  way  into  Sumatra,  and  then  into  Java. 
Towards  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  it  assumed 

1 Kawi — the  ancient  Javanese  language.  The  kawi  or  basa  kawi 
(in  Sanscrit  “ the  language  of  the  poets  ”)  was  spoken  and  written  in 
Java  until  the  fifteenth  century,  and  by  process  of  evolution  has 
become  the  modern  Javanese  tongue.  Despite  its  name,  the  kawi 
has  been  as  much  employed  in  prose  as  in  poetry,  for  the  translation 
or  imitation  of  legendary,  religious,  or  juridical  Sanscrit  works. 

Raffles  made  the  language  known  by  translating  a portion  of  the 
Brata-Yuda;  Humboldt  wrote  a study  of  it  in  a work,  remarkable 
for  its  period,  entitled  Ueber  die  Kawi-Sprache  (Berlin,  1836-1839, 

3 vols.  4to)  ; but  the  honour  of  having  explained  the  true  principles 
of  the  tongue  belongs  to  Dr.  H.  Kern  ( Kawi-Studien , The  Hague, 
1871, 8vo) : a book  which  has  been  the  starting-point  of  many  learned 
works  on  the  subject. 


138 


JAVA 


the  offensive  at  Grisei,  the  first  point  along  the  coast  to 
see  the  formation  of  a Musulman  community  around  a 
dynasty  of  priests — princes.  Hinduism  vainly  offered 
a desperate  resistance.  Between  1478  and  1521  Madja- 
pahit  fell  ; the  last  Brahmins  and  Buddhists  took  refuge 
in  Bali  and  Lombok,  and  some  in  the  solitudes  of 
Tengger ; and  all  Java  became  Mahomedan  as  it  had 
previously  become  Brahministic  and  then  Buddhistic  : 
without  extreme  fervour,  but  with  conviction ; being 
persuaded,  like  many  another  Asiatic  nation,  that  the 
best  religion  was  that  which  was  able  to  triumph  over 
the  others.  Java  is  still  of  the  same  persuasion  ; and 
many  a Dutchman  now  regrets  that  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment did  not  formerly,  in  a spirit  of  simple  policy, 
impress  Christianity  upon  the  people. 

II. 

One  might  reply  to  this  that  everything  shows  that  at 
a certain  period  the  thing  was  possible  ; the  success  of 
the  Portuguese  propaganda  in  the  Moluccas  at  that  period 
seems  to  prove  it.  Yet  the  circumstances  were  far  less 
favourable  in  the  case  of  Holland  ; and  when  the  Dutch 
finally  had  the  leisure  to  undertake  such  a task  they 
would  probably  have  found  it  no  longer  practicable. 

When  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  commenced,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  eject  the 
Portuguese  from  the  Archipelago,  it  was  composed  of 
men  in  whom  the  religious  sense  was  still  powerful  : 
men  whose  very  nationality  had  issued  from  religious 
conflict.  It  could  not  remain  indifferent  to  the  question  of 
conversion,  which  was  still  ostensibly  one  of  the  objects 
of  its  colonial  policy.  However,  instead  of  attempting 
to  evangelise  Java,  it  applied  itself  simply  to  converting 
the  converts  of  the  Portuguese  in  the  Moluccas  from 
Catholicism  to  Protestantism.  Could  the  Company  have 
done  more  at  that  moment,  considering  the  scanty  means 
at  its  disposal  and  the  enormous  area  of  Java,  where  it 
could  only  obtain  foothold  little  by  little,  while  struggling 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


139 


against  the  sullen  jealousy  of  the  Chinese  and  the  quickly 
awakened  hostility  of  the  Mahomedan  princes  of  Java  ? 
It  is  very  doubtful.  It  is  probable  that  the  Dutch  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  so  complete  a foothold  in  Java  only 
because  they  put  forward  no  imperialistic  policy,  no 
religious  designs,  but  were  apparently  actuated  simply 
by  a utilitarian  and  commercial  object.  This  wise 
neutrality,  which  was  imposed  by  the  circumstances, 
and  led  to  such  extraordinary  success,  became  the  rule 
of  the  Company,  so  necessary  was  it  to  avoid  injury 
to  the  susceptibilities  of  the  natives,  did  the  Dutch  wish, 
in  the  first  place,  to  appear  their  friends  and  allies, 
and  afterwards,  although  their  rulers,  preferable  to  all 
other  Europeans. 

The  Dutch  were  no  more  able  to  renounce  their  policy 
in  1816,  when  they  recovered  the  Indies  from  the  English. 
In  order  to  counterbalance  the  happy  memories  of  such 
an  administrator  as  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  without  adopt- 
ing his  policy,  they  were  obliged  to  surpass  it  or  to  sink 
it  into  oblivion  by  the  excellence  of  their  own  methods  ; 
so  that  any  religious  interference  at  such  a time  would 
have  been  disastrous. 

Moreover,  in  the  political  system  adopted  by  the 
Dutch,  which  was  that  of  governing  Java  through  its 
chiefs,  by  means  of  its  own  institutions,  while  they 
themselves,  in  spite  of  their  unremitting  control,  re- 
mained in  a remote  and  mysterious  twilight  which 
increased  their  prestige,  the  separation  of  the  religions 
and  languages  of  the  Europeans  and  the  Javanese  became 
an  essential  article  of  their  programme. 

The  Javanese  accordingly  were  not  disturbed  in  their 
beliefs.  When,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Holland  discovered  that  the  intrigues  of  the 
Mahomedan  Turks  and  Arabs  were  likely  to  cause  dis- 
turbances in  Java,  and  that  her  Christian  subjects  in 
Amboin  were  closer  to  her  and  perhaps  more  loyal 
than  the  Mahomedan  Javanese,  and  that  the  pride  of 
Islam  was  raising  a barrier  between  herself  and  the 
natives — a barrier  which  at  that  period  was  no  more 


140 


JAVA 


desired  by  Holland  than  by  the  natives  themselves — 
it  was  already  too  late  to  change  her  religious  policy. 

Both  Christian  pastors  and  Catholic  priests,  the  latter 
being  as  it  were  regretfully  tolerated  in  restricted  numbers 
from  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  were 
subjected  to  all  kinds  of  formalities,  especially  at  the 
outset,  before  they  could  obtain  permission  to  make  a 
stay  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies;  were  subsidised  meagrely 
or  not  at  all,  and  were  honoured  by  none  of  those  signs 
of  outward  consideration  which  so  greatly  impress  the 
natives  of  the  Far  East,  so  that  they  were  necessarily 
unable  to  make  headway  against  the  absolute  indifference 
of  the  Javanese. 

Was  the  opinion  of  the  Protestant  Raffles  correct 
(which  has  often  been  corroborated  by  various  Dutch 
administrators),  that  the  dry,  cold  spirituality  of  Pro- 
testantism repelled  the  natives,  who  would  have  been 
converted  with  far  greater  ease  by  the  pomp  and  sym- 
bolism of  Catholicism  ? If  so,  how  could  Holland, 
whose  very  existence  as  a nation  sprang  from  her  revolt 
against  Catholicism  in  Europe,  install  that  very  sect  in 
Java  ? Moreover,  from  the  seventeenth  to  the  nineteenth 
century  it  appeared  to  the  Dutch,  whether  rightly  or 
wrongly,  that  it  was  far  more  dangerous  to  allow  the 
Javanese  to  become  spiritually  subject  to  Rome  than  to 
allow  them  to  remain  subject  to  Constantinople. 

In  1906  the  Reformed  Church  in  Netherlands  India 
numbered  38  ministers  and  25  assistants,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  numbered  35  cures  and  22  priests;  none 
of  either  sect  received  any  payment  from  the  public 
funds.  There  were  also  about  205  missionaries  at  work 
throughout  the  Indies.  The  number  of  Christians  in 
Java  and  Madura  was  not  more  than  26,000  ; in  the 
Outer  Possessions  there  were  434,000.  Compared  with 
the  total  population,  these  figures  appear  quite  hope- 
less. 

None  the  less,  the  priests  of  the  two  cults  play  a very 
appreciable  part,  giving  the  Government  valuable  help  in 
educating  the  natives,  in  imparting  ideas  of  hygiene  and 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


141 


morality,  and  in  bringing  them  to  a higher  pitch  of 
civilisation,  especially  in  the  Outer  Possessions. 

Moreover,  we  must  not  forget  the  number  of  learned 
Dutchmen — highly  distinguished  ethnologists,  linguists, 
and  historians — who  have  gone  out  to  the  Indies  in  the 
quality  of  missionaries. 

Although  the  Javanese  remains  a Mahomedan  with  a 
certain  pride  in  belonging  to  a great  international  com- 
munity, he  is  none  the  less  a Mahomedan  with  a minimum 
of  fervour  and  orthodoxy.  He  regards  all  Arabs  with 
great  respect,  as  in  his  eyes  they  are  all  more  or  less 
remotely  descended  from  the  Prophet,  and  especially 
venerates  the  Hadjis  ; but  he  is  not  easily  persuaded  by 
them  to  abandon  his  ancient  Hindu  or  animistic  prac- 
tices, such  as  offerings  to  Buddhist  shrines  ; and  although 
he  observes  the  rite  of  circumcision,  he  refuses  to  fast 
and  abstain  from  work  on  Friday.  As  a rule,  he  is 
ignorant  of  his  religion  ; seldom  goes  to  the  mosque, 
and  rarely  says  the  five  prayers.  The  people  abstain 
from  fermented  liquors  because  they  are  naturally  sober ; 
but  certain  regents,  and  the  Sultan  and  Susuhunan,  do 
not  regard  the  drinking  of  wine  as  an  offence,  in  spite 
of  the  eminent  religious  position  of  the  latter.  The 
number  of  Javanese  who  accomplish  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  which  is  expected  of  every  pious  Mahomedan,  is 
negligible  (less  than  five  thousand  annually),  although  it 
has  doubled  in  ten  years ; and  many  undertake  it  only 
to  call  oblivion  down  upon  an  evil  past,  or  to  add  to  a 
fortune,  perhaps  dubiously  acquired,  a certain  amount 
of  social  consideration  ; or  from  ambition  ; or  to  join 
to  other  advantages  a vague  atmosphere  of  sanctity. 
Again,  the  Javanese  does  not  observe  Ramadhan,  or 
the  month  of  fasting,  with  very  noticeable  strictness, 
leaving  that  duty  to  the  priests  and  a few  santris.  Of 
the  three  great  yearly  festivals  of  Islam — Maiilid,  ’Idu 
' l-fitr , and  'Idu  'l  Qorbdn,  which  he  knows  as  garebeg 
rntilud,  garebeg  puasa,  and  garebeg  besar — the  Javanese 
makes  very  little  of  the  first,  which  solemnises  the  Nativity 
of  Mahomet ; or  of  the  second,  or  the  feast  upon  the 


142 


JAVA 


cessation  of  the  fast ; while  he  pays  hardly  more  atten- 
tion to  the  third,  the  garebeg  besar,  the  great  festival, 
or  day  of  sacrifice,  which  takes  place  on  the  tenth  day 
of  the  twelfth  month,  and  should  be  preceded  by  a fast 
on  the  ninth  day.  On  this  occasion  the  pious  Musul- 
man  must  give  alms,  and  must  attend  the  mosque  for 
prayer  in  common  with  his  co-religionists.  Even  in 
the  Vorstenlanden,  which  are  centres  of  comparative 
religious  fervour,  these  two  festivals  are  most  indiffe- 
rently observed.  The  garebeg puasa  is  the  most  religiously 
solemnised.  It  falls  upon  the  first  day  of  the  month 
of  Sawal,  bringing  Ramadhan  to  a close.  Whether  the 
festival  is  badly  observed  or  well,  every  one  is  delighted 
that  the  fast  is  ended ; people  bathe,  wash  their  hair,  put 
on  new  clothes,  and  set  out  to  wish  happiness  to  their 
friends  and  relations.  Europeans  have  formed  the  habit 
of  exchanging  good  wishes  with  the  natives  on  the  day 
of  this  festival,  and  some  even  believe  that  it  represents 
the  Javanese  “ new  year.”  The  Dutch  Government  has 
raised  the  garebeg  puasa  to  the  status  of  an  official 
holiday. 

In  all  provincial  or  district  capitals  the  regent,  on  the 
day  of  the  garebeg  puasa,  having  received  the  respects  of 
his  subordinate  officials,  and  having  accompanied  them 
to  the  mosque,  proceeds  to  the  house  or  palace  of  the 
Resident  or  Assistant,  who  awaits  him,  at  ten  o'clock, 
in  full  uniform.  The  regent  announces  that  the  feast 
is  terminated,  expresses  his  good  wishes  and  those  of 
his  companions,  and  returns  to  his  own  dwelling.  The 
Resident,  in  turn,  proceeds  to  pay  a similar  visit  to  the 
regent ; this  is  an  occasion  of  pomp  and  ceremony,  and 
after  the  Resident  has  in  suitable  phrases  expressed  his 
felicitations  and  those  of  the  Government  there  is  a 
thunder  of  cannon,  a general  exchange  of  congratula- 
tions, and  popular  games  commence  upon  the  aloun- 
aloun.  At  Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta,  at  the  courts  of 
the  Sultan  and  Susuhunan,  the  festival  is  considerably 
more  brilliant  than  elsewhere. 

From  the  Laodicean  temperament  of  the  Javanese,  and 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


143 


his  profound  politeness,  arises  his  perfect  tolerance  in 
religious  matters,  and  his  utter  lack  of  fanaticism  ; but 
we  must  not  conclude  that  he  is  indifferent.  He  is  a 
good  Musulman  because  he  believes  and  wishes  himself 
to  be  one  ; it  is  probable  that  even  persecution  would 
fail  to  make  him  abandon  Islam,  were  such  treatment 
ever  to  be  adopted  ; for  when  once  the  quiet,  reserved, 
apathetic  Javanese,  stung  by  too  keen  an  injury  to  his 
self-esteem,  has  engaged  in  a conflict  with  Holland,  his 
most  formidable  revolts  have  always  had  the  appearance 
of  outbreaks  of  religious  fanaticism.  It  was  so  with 
Pieter  Erberfeld,1  whose  name,  after  the  lapse  of  two 
hundred  years,  is  still  upheld  to  execration  upon  the 
ruined  walls  of  old  Batavia ; and  also  with  another 
rebel  of  quite  another  complexion — Dipo  Negoro,  the 


1 The  son  of  a German  resident  in  Batavia  and  of  a native  woman, 
Pieter  Erberfeld,  who  became  a Musulman,  appears  to  have  been 
wealthy  and  influential.  Thanks  to  the  distribution  of  amulets  made 
of  little  copper  discs,  he  succeeded  in  surrounding  himself  with 
numerous  partisans — they  numbered  nearly  seventeen  thousand — 
among  whom  a Javanese,  Kartadrya  by  name,  was  particularly  devoted 
to  him.  He  had  formed  the  project  of  expelling  all  Europeans  from 
Java,  and  of  making  himself  the  ruler  of  Batavia,  with  the  title  of 
Tuan  Gusti,  or  August  Lord,  while  Kartadrya  was  to  be  com- 
mandant of  the  districts.  It  is  said  that  a native  woman  betrayed 
the  plot,  which  was  dated  for  the  ist  of  January,  1722.  A number 
of  conspirators  were  put  to  death,  and  Erberfeld  was  atrociously 
tortured,  while  his  house  was  rased  to  the  ground,  and  it  was 
decreed  that  the  site  should  never  be  built  upon  again.  To  this  day, 
in  old  Batavia,  not  far  from  the  church,  one  may  see  a blank  wall 
on  the  top  of  which  is  a skull  transfixed  with  a rod  of  iron.  Below 
is  the  following  inscription  : — 


OYTEN  VERFOEYELYKE 
GEDACHTENISSE  TEGENDEN 
GESTRAFTEN  LAND  VERAA= 
DER  PIETER  ERBERVELD 
SAL  NIEMANT  VERMOOGEN 
TE  DEESER  PLAATSE  TE 
BOUWEN  TIMMEREN  MET= 
SELEN  OFF  PLANTEN  NU 
OFTE  TEN  EEWIGEN  DAAGE 
BATAVIA  DEN  14  APRIL  A0  1722. 


TO  PERPETUATE 
THE  ACCURSED  MEMORY 
OF  THE  CONDEMNED  TRAITOR 
PIETER  ERBERFELD, 

SHALL  NO  ONE  RAISE 
ON  THIS  SPOT 

HOUSE,  BUILDING,  OR  STRUCTURE 
NOR  PLANT  [ANY  GROWING  THING] 
NOW  AND  FOREVERMORE. 
BATAVIA  THE  14  APRIL  ANNO  1"J22. 


144 


JAVA 


instigator  of  the  great  Javanese  War,  whose  disappointed 
ambition  and  outraged  dignity  ended  in  a mystical 
exaltation,  which  was  indubitably  sincere,  and  in  an 
appeal  to  all  the  centre  of  Java,  calling  upon  the  people 
to  arm  themselves  for  the  prosecution  of  a holy  war. 
Such  also  was  the  form  assumed  by  the  last  exasperated 
risings  among  the  famine-stricken  people  of  Bantam. 

III. 

The  problem  of  native  education  is  even  more  complex, 
from  the  Dutch  point  of  view,  than  the  question  of 
religion.  It  is  not,  however,  a problem  of  very  long 
standing  : as  lately  as  1796  the  Dutch  Indian  Company 
which  was  governing,  or  rather  exploiting,  the  Dutch 
Indies,  appeared  to  have  no  suspicion  that  such  a 
problem  could  ever  present  itself.  It  confined  itself  to 
drawing  from  the  soil  the  utmost  that  the  soil  could 
yield,  concerning  itself  neither  with  the  political  institu- 
tions nor  the  social  conceptions  of  its  so-called  subjects, 
lest  the  one  or  the  other  should  stand  in  the  way  of  its 
adroit  extraction  of  the  resources  of  the  country.  It  is  not 
certain  that  it  could  have  done  more,  considering  the 
means  at  its  disposal  ; certainly  it  appears  never  to  have 
dreamed  of  approaching  the  subject. 

The  short  but  fertile  French  domination,  followed  by 
the  rule  of  England,  had  of  necessity  to  take  action  in 
other  directions  ; the  question  of  native  education 
was  not  touched  upon,  save  in  a purely  indirect 
fashion. 

Although  when  the  Dutch,  in  1816,  resumed  posses- 
sion of  the  Indies,  the  indifference  with  which  the  natives, 
with  whom  they  had  so  little  concerned  themselves,  had 
passed  into  the  hands  of  other  masters,  without  a regret 
for  their  old  rulers,  should  have  been  a cruel  but  salutary 
lesson,  the  manner  in  which  they  resolved  henceforth 
to  enter  into  contact  with  their  subjects  was  not,  perhaps, 
as  fruitful  as  it  might  have  been,  although  at  the  outset  it 
might  have  seemed  the  only  wise  method. 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


145 


Their  policy  was  then,  and  for  forty  years  to  follow, 
that  of  respecting  the  natives  and  their  institutions.  Lest 
the  Mahomedan  susceptibilities  of  the  Javanese  should 
be  awakened,  the  Dutch  impeded,  deliberately  but 
sincerely,  the  efforts  of  the  only  class  of  people  who  were 
at  that  moment  anxious  to  enlighten  and  develop  the 
native  mind  : namely,  the  missionaries,  Catholic  and 
Protestant.  In  spite  of  the  blunders  which  these  latter 
committed — having  first  selected  Latin,  and  afterwards 
Malay,  as  the  medium  of  their  education  and  evangelism 
— they  would  certainly,  although  their  ambition  of  con- 
version might  well  have  failed,  have  developed  the 
mentality  of  the  natives,  if  only  by  a step. 

But  the  Dutch  continued  to  leave  the  mass  of  the 
people  prostrate  in  ignorance  and  servitude,  under  the 
direction  of  their  own  chiefs,  although  the  intellectual 
insufficiency  and  regrettable  immorality  of  the  latter 
became  always  more  and  more  obvious. 

The  famous  Marshal  Daendels,  at  the  time  of  the 
French  domination,  had  very  wisely  decreed,  in  1808, 
that  all  the  regents  of  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Java 
should  at  their  own  expense  create — thus  leaving  the 
Treasury  unwrung — schools  provided  with  able  teachers, 
for  the  purpose  of  educating  the  natives  according  to 
their  adat  and  their  belief. 

This  decree,  repealed  by  the  Dutch,  remained  a dead 
letter.  In  1849  there  were  still  only  two  regent’s  schools  ; 
these  two  being  due  to  two  regents  who  were  full  of 
initiative — those  of  Japara  and  Pasuruan.  In  1851  there 
were  five,  but  so  pitiful  that  they  were  hardly  worth  the 
trouble  of  maintenance. 

They  were,  for  the  most  part,  “ Koran  schools,”  of  an 
indefinite  type,  which  a holy  man — a panghulu  or 
santri,1 II  attended  in  a more  or  less  regular  fashion,  giving 

1 Panghulu  (Malay:  Dutch  transcription  pengoeloe,  or  pangkoeloe) 
the  dean  of  a mosque  ; santri  (Javanese),  a student  in  theology,  a 
theologian ; a pious  man  who  studies  the  Musulman  religion. 
Religious  establishments  in  which  theological  instruction  is  given 
are  in  Java  called  pcsantrin ; the  quarters  inhabited  by  santris  are 

II 


146 


JAVA 


the  scholars  a certain  amount  of  religious  instruction, 
reading  to  them,  and  making  them  learn  by  heart  certain 
passages  of  the  Koran.  They  might  not  infrequently 
increase  the  fanaticism  of  some  of  their  pupils  ; they 
could  aid  in  the  development  of  none. 

Good  issued  from  the  greatest  evil ; from  the  infamous 
system  of  compulsory  crops  ( Cultnurstelsel ),  conceived 
by  Van  den  Bosch  ; the  most  immoral  and  gigantic 
spoliation  to  which  an  upright,  generous,  kindly  people 
could  ever  have  lent  itself  in  its  blind  utilitarianism  ; a 
system  from  which  Java  is  barely  recovering  to-day. 
This  system,  which  was  apparently  a capital  thing  for 
Holland,  since  it  enabled  her,  between  1850  and  1870, 
deliberately  to  extract  from  her  colony  nearly  two  thou- 
sand millions  of  net  profits,  was  realised  by  means  of 
unjust  deeds,  legal  exactions,  and  at  the  cost  of  human 
life,  and  it  finally  forced  the  ruling  country  to  take  two 
matters  into  consideration.  One  of  these  was  the 
notorious  incompetence  of  the  regents,  who  directed  the 
affairs  of  the  system  in  their  own  provinces  and  shared 
the  benefits  : an  incompetence  which,  together  with 
their  cupidity,  was  likely  to  drive  the  native  to  extremes, 
by  aggravating  the  system  by  additional  and  useless  acts 
of  injustice.  The  second  was  the  necessity  of  choosing 
among  the  natives  innumerable  subordinate  employees, 
which  this  colossal  system  of  exploitation  required  for  its 
regular  working,  and  as  a check,  as  far  as  might  be, 
against  fraud.  There  thus  arose  the  necessity  of  edu- 
cating the  natives  employed  from  top  to  bottom  of  the 
scale  ; always  with  a strictly  utilitarian  aim. 

This  idea  outlived  the  method  of  compulsory  cultures, 
being  taken  over  unchanged  by  the  Liberal  party  which 
abolished  the  latter.  But  this  time  it  was  adhered  to 
with  the  more  respectable  object  of  preparing  natives  of 
high  birth  to  become  worthy  of  being  actually  associated 
with  the  power  of  Holland,  and  to  make  the  mass  of  the 

known  as  pondok  (root  fondouq  = 7ravdoxeTov) ; the  hall  in  which 
classes  are  held  is  called  langgar  in  Java,  and  in  the  Sundanese 
country,  tadjug. 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


147 


people  capable  of  obtaining  the  best  from  themselves  as 
well  as  from  their  soil.  The  law  of  1854  was  not  voted 
without  furious  recriminations  and  desperate  political 
struggles,  and  it  was  only  in  1872  that  it  was  put  into 
execution.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  Holland — all  that 
was  most  noble  and  enlightened  in  the  country — the  Van 
Hoevells  and  Van  den  Puttes — immediately  entered  the 
most  vehement  protests  against  the  immorality  of  the 
system  of  compulsory  culture,  and  that  the  whole  country 
attacked  it  without  waiting  for  revolt  or  disaster  in  the 
colony,  simply  as  the  result  of  a determined  appeal  to  its 
conscience.  Moreover,  from  1872  onwards,  we  shall  find 
that  Holland  has  been  full  of  a general  and  maternal 
solicitude  for  the  Dutch  Indies ; the  fact  is  that  her 
administrators  have  gradually  learned  the  native  tongues, 
and  at  last  come  into  contact  with  them.  Other 
functionaries,  who  have  often  been  especially  com- 
missioned by  the  home  authorities,  have  made  a careful 
study,  on  the  spot,  of  the  native  manners,  beliefs,  abilities, 
and  ambitions ; many  misunderstandings  have  been  cleared 
away,  and  after  a long  period  of  ignorance  concerning  her 
subjects,  Holland  is  endeavouring  to  atone  for  the  past. 

It  is  essential,  however,  that  the  movement  in  favour 
of  a system  of  serious  education  should  obtain  the  im- 
mediate and  ungrudging  support  of  all  its  European 
advocates,  especially  those  in  the  colonies. 

At  the  outset  there  were  many  who,  in  their  lethargic 
egoism,  protested  against  the  idea  of  educating  the 
natives  ; saying  that  it  was  impossible  to  do  so,  or  that 
they  themselves  did  not  wish  for  education,  or  that  were 
they  educated  they  would  gain  nothing  by  it  ; they  had 
lived  for  centuries  without  instruction,  so  that  any 
attempt  at  further  development,  so  far  from  bringing  them 
enlightenment,  would  merely  fill  their  feeble  minds  with 
discontent  and  chaos. 


IV. 

Two  facts  appear  at  length  to  be  definitely  established. 
The  Javanese,  who  is  extremely  precocious,  has  also  an 


148 


JAVA 


open,  adaptable  type  of  mind,  which  has  great  powers 
of  assimilation.  Left  to  himself,  he  learns  all  the  sub- 
tleties of  his  own  very  complex  language,  and  also  those 
of  the  Malay  tongue  ; he  has  a remarkable  knowledge  of 
the  names  and  properties  of  the  plants  and  trees  of  his 
country ; his  faculty  of  locating  himself,  of  being  aware 
of  the  points  of  the  compass,  even  in  the  dark,  is  gene- 
rally known  ; and  all  that  appertains  to  design,  geography, 
or  topography  he  absorbs  with  the  utmost  eagerness. 
In  school,  thanks  to  his  precocity,  it  often  happens  that 
he  outstrips  European  children  of  his  own  age  ; and  in 
some  cases  he  is  able  to  maintain  this  superiority  for 
years. 

Latterly,  in  short,  whenever  certain  privileged  indi- 
viduals have  obtained  a full  European  education,  we 
have  seen  that  they  make  a very  good  showing,  and 
have  sometimes  proved  themselves  of  considerable 
value.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  argue  that  the 
Javanese  cannot  be  educated;1  a fact  which  is  now  so 
generally  understood  that  no  one,  save  a few  narrow- 
minded autocrats,  dares  to  continue  to  oppose  the 
movement. 

The  native's  passion  for  learning  is  perhaps  even  more 
firmly  established  than  his  aptitudes  ; young  and  old,  all 
are  ambitious  to  learn.  When  the  first  Normal  Teachers’ 
School  was  opened  in  Java,  the  cadets  of  the  aristocracy 
rushed  to  enter  it  almost  as  precipitately  as  the  people  ; 
perhaps  because  they  saw  in  it,  as  did  the  people,  a fresh 
possibility  of  becoming  functionaries ; but  also  because 

1 It  would  be  easy  to  name  the  son  or  grandson  of  this  or  that 
regent  as  speaking  and  writing  not  only  his  own  language,  but 
Malay,  Dutch,  French,  &c.,  as  well,  and  capable  of  passing  very 
brilliantly  in  the  higher  examinations  in  Holland.  A certain  doctor 
in  medicine  might  be  named,  also  a fluent  speaker  of  many  lan- 
guages, who  is  noted  in  the  universities  of  Europe  both  for  his 
acquired  knowledge  and  his  untiring  intelligence.  Dr.  L.  Serrurier, 
in  the  Caial.  de  la  sect.  Indes  Neerlandaises  a l’ expos,  col. 
d’ Amsterdam  (Leyden,  1883),  cl.  xi.,  has  a short  biography  of  a 
Javanese  painter,  Raden  Saleh  Sarief  Bastaman  (1814-1880),  who 
enjoyed  a certain  celebrity.  One  might  easily  lengthen  such  a list. 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


149 


they  desired  to  learn,  to  raise  themselves  another  step  ; 
and  it  was  difficult  to  make  them  understand  that  the 
school  was  not  for  them.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
provincial  schools  especially  intended  for  them  were 
opened,  every  peasant  who  was  in  comfortable  circum- 
stances commenced  to  intrigue  in  the  hope  of  entering 
his  sons.  The  “ schools  for  the  sons  of  chiefs  ” in 
Bandung,  Probolinggo,  and  Magelang  in  Java,  and  in 
Tondino  in  Minahasa,  for  the  Outer  Possessions,  were 
very  soon  complained  of  as  insufficient  both  in  numbers 
and  in  the  scope  of  their  curriculum.  The  ambition  of 
every  regent’s  son  was  to  share  in  the  education  which 
the  Europeans  were  receiving  in  their  own  separate 
schools  ; to  learn  Dutch  and  the  principal  elements  of 
Western  culture. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  in  former  years  this 
enthusiasm  for  learning  was  neither  so  general  nor  so 
precise  in  its  aim.  From  the  year  1820  all  the  regents 
were  bitterly  complaining  that  they  had  been  despoiled 
of  their  powers  and  the  number  of  their  prerogatives  ; 
that  they  were  playing  a wholly  illusory  part  in  the  Java 
whose  masters  they  had  formerly  been.  Few  would 
admit  that  their  lives,  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  pleasure 
and  cupidity,  together  with  their  ignorance  and  their 
unjustifiable  exactions,  would  scarcely  have  permitted 
them  to  have  led  a more  active  existence  ; still  less  did 
they  admit  the  necessity  of  revising  their  education  in 
order  to  make  themselves  fit  for  such  a life.  Only  a few, 
like  the  regents  of  Japara  and  Pasuruan,  and,  later  on, 
those  of  Demak  and  Karang  Anjar,  declared  that  the 
Javanese  nobility  could  only  retain  its  rank  by  submitting 
to  the  forces  of  evolution,  and  that  the  Dutch  Govern- 
ment ought  to  assist  it. 

Many  saw  in  the  opening  of  these  " schools  for  the 
sons  of  chiefs  ” either  a futility  or  a snare  by  which  the 
Europeans  hoped  to  destroy  their  ancient  customs,  and 
turn  the  sons  against  the  traditions  of  the  fathers.  For  a 
time  there  were  vacancies  in  the  Bandung  school,  and 
the  five  regents  of  Bantam,  a province  greatly  attached 


150 


JAVA 


to  Islam  and  adat,  refused  to  send  their  sons  there  ; but 
a Dutch  official  finally  persuaded  one  of  them  to  allow 
his  son,  who  was  a very  gifted  boy,  to  enter  in  spite  of 
the  objurgations  of  the  others,  and  their  gloomy  pro- 
phecies. The  tact  with  which  the  boy  was  educated, 
the  extent  to  which  he  profited,  together  with  the  inborn 
taste  of  the  Javanese  for  intellectual  culture,  triumphed 
over  the  old  suspicion,  and  the  four  other  regents  imme- 
diately sent  their  sons  to  the  school,  which  thenceforth 
had  as  great  a vogue  as  the  others. 

Prolonged  contact  with  Europeans,  and  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  which  affected  the  Javanese  merely  as  the 
friends  of  Japan,  which  means  little  enough,  but  which 
gave  them,  in  common  with  other  Asiatic  peoples,  the 
unexpected  and  pleasing  surprise  of  seeing  that  the 
yellow  man  was  capable  of  making  use  of  European 
arms,  and  with  them  of  defeating  a European  nation, 
could  only  increase  this  thirst  for  development  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  social  scale,  while  giving  a more 
definite  knowledge  of  the  form  which  that  development 
should  take. 

It  is  impossible  any  longer  to  refuse  the  natives  of  the 
East  Indies  the  education  which  in  Europe  is  compul- 
sory, since  they  have  shown  themselves  capable  of  pro- 
fiting by  it,  and  demand  it.  It  would  be  puerile  to  raise 
the  objection  that  they  must  be  content  with  the  neutrality 
which  has  been  theirs  for  the  last  ten  centuries  ; Europe 
herself  has  advanced  only  by  a process  of  continual 
evolution  ; and  since  enlightenment  and  power  proceed 
from  Europe  the  Javanese  demand  that  they  shall  receive 
their  share.  At  all  times  attached  to  the  soil,  to  the 
memory  of  their  ancestors,  and  to  their  adat , but 
having,  as  they  consider,  exhausted  the  resources  of  their 
own  civilisation,  they  demand  the  opportunity  of  renew- 
ing their  strength  by  means  of  Western  civilisation,  so 
that  they  may  extract  from  it  all  that  will  not  obscure  the 
originality  of  their  own.1 

1 One  may  obtain  some  idea  of  the  highly  intellectual  and  per- 
fectly loyal  aspirations  of  the  young  Javanese  aristocracy  by  ex- 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


151 


They  affirm  that  their  loyalty  will  be  in  no  sense  dimin- 
ished, whatever  the  pessimistic  may  believe.  They  are 
faithful  subjects  of  the  Queen,  they  know  all  they  owe  to 
Holland,  and  that  they  could  not  for  a long  time  to  come 
dispense  with  the  Dutch  and  rule  themselves  ; but  the 
upper  classes  which  have  hitherto  been  nominally  asso- 
ciated with  the  exercise  of  power  might  not  unreasonably 
hope  to  regain  a certain  degree  of  actual  and  effective 
power,  by  which  not  only  they,  but  the  whole  social 
body,  would  benefit ; and  the  people,  which  is  gradually 
developing  a consciousness  of  self,  perceives  the  possi- 
bility of  improving  its  condition,  both  morally  and  mate- 
rially, by  a rational  self-development. 

The  Javanese  aristocracy  are  far  from  crying,  “Java  for 
the  Javanese  !"  because,  at  the  present  moment,  such  a 
cry  would  be  a piece  of  fatuous  vanity.  What  they  do 
cry  is,  “ Give  us  light  ! ” — light  under  the  maternal  aegis 
of  Holland,  so  that  they  may  once  more  become  worthy 
of  their  past,  and  of  a still  better  future. 

Hence  the  cry  for  a multiplication  of  the  primary 
schools,  where  the  natives  could  learn  not  only  their 
own  language  and  Malay,  but,  towards  the  end  of  their 
studies,  the  elements  of  Dutch  as  well  ; where,  above  all, 
they  would  gain  a certain  practical  knowledge  of  hygiene, 
agriculture,  surveying,  and  accounts,  and  where  they 
would  receive  salutary  advice  on  the  subjects  of  thrift 
and  foresight,  so  that  by  yielding  them  more  their 
native  soil  should  become  yet  more  dear  to  them,  while 
some  might  be  induced  to  enter  upon  commercial 
pursuits,  which  they  have  ignored  only  too  long. 

The  more  wealthy  and  intelligent,  the  sons  of  petty 
officials,  or  cadets  of  good  family,  might  pursue  their 
studies  in  the  professional  schools  of  agriculture  and 
commerce,  and  would  provide  the  administration  with  a 
solid  framework  of  subordinate  employees,  and  with  the 

amining  the  programme  of  a native  league,  the  Budi  Utomo,  and  the 
minutes  of  two  congresses  held  by  this  league  in  October,  1908  and 
1909,  which  I have  given  in  the  Revue  du  Monde  Musulman,  vol.  vii., 
April,  1909,  pp.  414-427  ; vol.  ix.,  Dec.,  1909,  No.  12,  pp.  612-620. 


152 


JAVA 


nucleus  of  a class  of  native  landowners  educated  along 
modern  lines. 

Others  would  pass  through  the  Native  College  of 
Medicine  at  Weltevreden,  which  is  attended  by  the 
sons  of  the  priyayi  and  the  younger  sons  of  regents.1 

The  better  equipped  of  these  Dokters-Djawa,  whose 
ardent  though  loyalist  patriotism  has  already  been  re- 
marked, would  obtain  scholarships  or  exhibitions  which 
would  allow  them  to  perfect  their  training  in  the  schools 
of  Holland,  which  in  their  eyes  are  the  source  of  all  true 
knowledge. 

The  sons  and  heirs  of  regents  and  high  officials  are 
asking  not  for  schools  especially  created  for  them,  but 
for  the  right  to  enter  the  elementary  schools  ( lagere 
scliolen),  then  the  secondary  schools  ( burgerscholen , 
hitherto  reserved  for  Europeans  only),  in  the  hope 
that  afterwards,  if  they  prove  themselves  competent, 
they  may  attend  the  universities  of  Holland,  and  there 
pass  the  same  examinations  as  their  Dutch  fellow-students, 
with  a view  to  entering  upon  the  same  careers. 

This  attractive  programme,  democratic  in  its  liberality, 

1 School  tot  opleiding  van  Inlandschen  Arisen,  or,  vulgarly,  the 
Dokters-Djawa  School.  It  trains  the  Dokters-Djawa,  or  native 
physicians,  who  are  of  great  service.  At  the  outset  they  receive 
a salary  of  50  florins  per  month,  and  hold  the  rank  of  assistant 
wedono  of  the  first  class  (district  under-chief).  The  curriculum  in 
the  School  of  Native  Medicine  includes  the  following  subjects  : 
Dutch,  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  materia  medica,  therapeutics, 
pathology,  bacteriology,  and  minor  surgery.  A polyclinic  has  been 
recently  added  to  the  school.  The  lectures,  &c.,  are  in  Dutch  and 
Malay.  The  course  lasts  three  years  in  the  case  of  pupils  of  the 
preparatory  department,  and  six  years  in  the  case  of  the  medical 
section,  properly  so  called.  The  school  is  capable  of  accommodating 
two  hundred  students.  The  Weltevreden  Hospital  possesses  as  an 
annex  a school  for  midwives  ( School  tot  opleiding  van  Inlandsche 
vroedvrouwen) , intended  to  educate  native  women  in  European 
ideas  of  practical  obstetrics,  hygiene,  and  the  rearing  of  children. 
They  receive  no  fixed  salary  upon  leaving  the  school,  but  may 
claim  payment  for  their  work. — Priyayi  (Dutch  spelling,  prijaji), 
employee,  official,  and,  by  extension,  any  one  who  holds  a place  or 
rank,  or  is  a person  to  be  considered.  But  the  word  has  especially 
the  meaning,  in  the  wider  sense,  of  “gentleman.” 


THE  JAVANESE  MIND 


153 


yet  securing  for  members  of  the  aristocracy  the  pre- 
rogatives which  they  have  always  been  granted,  would 
unhappily  prove  enormously  expensive.  It  testifies  to 
the  native's  touching  and  candid  confidence  in  the 
modern  deity,  who  finds  none  to  deny  him  among  the 
peoples  of  the  Far  East : the  deity  of  progress,  incar- 
nated in  the  civilisation  of  the  Western  world. 

All  that  Holland  has  already  performed  in  the  way  of 
educating  the  natives  guarantees  the  goodwill  of  the 
administration  in  this  matter,  and  her  resolution  to 
complete  her  task. 

In  1849  the  budget  of  public  education  for  the  natives 
amounted  to  25,000  florins,  for  one  normal  school  and  a 
few  provincial  schools.  In  1906  it  amounted  to  2,318,358 
florins  for  five  normal  schools  (three  in  Java  and  two  in 
the  Outer  Possessions),  with  31  masters  and  300  pupils, 
and  323  elementary  schools  with  74,984  pupils  in  Java 
and  Madura  alone,  which  were  subsidised  by  the  Govern- 
ment, and  446  private  schools  with  50,344  pupils.  The 
result  does  not  appear  very  considerable  if  we  compare  it 
with  the  density  of  the  population  and  the  money 
expended  ; but  what  colonial  Power  can  boast  of 
having  done  as  much  ? Certainly  not  England  in 
India,  nor  France  in  Indo-China. 

Will  the  Dutch  Government  be  able  to  go  much 
further,  and,  with  the  help  given  by  the  private  schools, 
succeed  in  satisfying  all  the  demands  for  further  schools 
which  are  pouring  in  on  every  hand  ? It  is  very  certain 
that  it  will  have  to  proceed  more  deliberately  than  the 
native  aristocracy  desires  ; the  heavy  expenses  of  public 
education,  added  to  the  cost  of  the  Achinese  War  for  the 
last  three  years,  is  causing  a slight  deficit  in  its  budget ; 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  this  deficit  will  be  increased. 
For  the  rest  the  movement  is  well  afoot ; everywhere  the 
richer  natives,  often  in  conjunction  with  the  wealthy 
Chinese,  are  offering  to  come  to  the  help  of  the  authori- 
ties in  order  that  they  may  obtain  their  desire ; and 
unless  progress  is  the  most  illusory  of  chimerae,  Java  is 
on  the  way  to  acquiring  mental  and  moral  characteristics 
which  are  worthy  of  attracting  attention. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT 

I.  The  Oriental  foreign  element  in  Java  and  Madura : the 
Japanese,  Arabs,  and  Chinese.  The  Japanese  are  the  latest 
arrivals,  and  the  least  numerous,  but  also  the  best  treated. — 
II.  The  Arabs  : the  religious  and  economic  danger  represented 
by  the  Arab  element  in  the  Dutch  Indies. — III.  The  Chinese  : 
their  numbers,  their  activity,  their  wealth.  Why  they  are  con- 
sidered detrimental  to  the  political  and  economic  power  of 
the  rulers,  and  the  morality  and  prosperity  of  the  native. — IV. 
The  various  solutions  of  the  problem  ; their  injustice,  or  in- 
sufficiency, or  the  impossibility  of  applying  them.  The  only 
remedy  is  to  educate  the  Javanese  so  that  they  may  take  their 
place  as  devoted  collaborators  and  agents  of  the  administration 
and  the  European  industries. 


I. 

Besides  the  29,715,908  Javanese,  Sundanese,  Madurese, 
and  Malays,  and  the  64,917  Europeans  who  inhabit 
Java  and  Madura,  the  two  islands  together  contain  a 
further  population  of  about  320,000  Orientals. 

These  may  be  divided  into  295,193  Chinese,  19,148 
Arabs,  2,842  Japanese,  Armenians,  Persians,  &c. 

The  Japanese,  who  do  not  exceed  1,800,  although  the 
latest  comers  and  by  far  the  least  numerous,  are  none 
the  less  the  best  treated. 

Since  the  possession  of  Formosa,  taken  from  the 
Chinese,  and  the  happy  issue  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
have  given  them  a preponderant  position  in  the  Far 
East,  we  see  them  going  forth  on  every  hand,  bringing 
with  their  national  pride  their  curious  intelligence, 

alternately  adaptable  and  arrogant,  their  activity  and 

154 


ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT  155 


powers  of  assimilation,  which  allow  them  to  appear,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  rest  of  Asia,  as  having  won  the  victories 
of  Western  civilisation.  They  have  the  double  advan- 
tage of  being  of  the  same  racial  strain,  yet  of  appearing 
to  be  as  “strong”  as  Europeans  ; so  that  in  the  Dutch 
Indies,  where  this  gives  them  a dangerous  superiority 
over  the  other  yellow  races,  they  have  obtained  the 
favourable  treatment  reserved  for  Europeans. 

This  fact  contributes  not  a little  to  increase  their 
prestige  still  further  in  the  eyes  of  the  natives ; already 
native  papers  abound,  on  the  fourth  page,  in  Japanese 
advertisements,  wherein  physicians,  apothecaries,  and 
shopkeepers  of  all  kinds  offer  the  Javanese,  in  terms 
adapted  to  their  mental  make-up,  the  last  effort  of  Western 
science,  or  its  most  finished  products.  They  are  trying 
to  oust  the  Chinese  from  the  market ; and  their  initial 
move,  although  not  as  yet  formidable,  in  view  of  their 
scanty  numbers,  at  all  events  manifests  their  perfect 
competency  for  that  purpose.  So  far  it  would  be  almost 
as  absurd  to  exaggerate  their  nascent  influence  as  to 
ignore  it. 

Although  the  Japanese,  legitimately  proud  as  they  are, 
and  perhaps  a little  carried  away  by  their  late  success, 
are  seeking  to  make  friends  of  the  people  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, of  whom  a more  or  less  plausible  theory  makes 
them  the  distant  cousins,  it  does  not  appear  so  far  as 
though  the  native  masses  are  particularly  impressed. 
The  aristocracy  alone  recognises  their  significance  ; but 
has  been  more  than  once  repulsed  and  wounded  by  the 
intractable  pride  with  which  the  Japanese  have  long 
been  reproached,  and  which  makes  it  less  easy  to  do 
business  with  them  than  with  the  adaptable  and  obliging 
Chinese ; and  the  example  of  their  relentless  seizure  of 
Korea  has  given  many  pause  to  think. 

II. 

With  the  Arabs,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Javanese  has 
powerful  religious  affinities,  and  the  habit  of  long-estab- 


156 


JAVA 


lished  intercourse.  From  the  earliest  times,  moreover, 
the  small  Arab  community  has  exercised  a living  in- 
fluence upon  the  life  of  the  island,  and  on  several 
occasions  has  caused  the  Dutch  Government  some 
anxiety,  though  perhaps  without  very  good  reason. 

As  a rule,  Europeans  make  two  complaints  against 
the  Arabs.  Firstly,  they  accuse  them  of  pan- Islamic 
tendencies  ; they  fear  that  they  will  awaken,  as  soon  as 
they  can,  in  the  name  of  a community  of  faith,  the  fire 
of  fanaticism  in  the  lethargic,  tolerant  mind  of  the 
Javanese,  and  will  direct  it  against  the  Dutch  ; secondly 
they  complain  that  their  bad  faith  in  matters  com- 
mercial, and  their  usurious  habits  of  business,  are  under- 
mining the  economic  prosperity  of  the  Europeans  in 
Java,  and  are  even  more  harmful  to  the  natives. 

These  two  grievances  appear  to  correspond  with  the  two 
categories  of  Arabs  who  inhabit  the  Dutch  Indies.  On 
the  one  hand  are  the  Hadjis  and  santris  who  visit  Java 
in  order  to  watch  over  its  orthodoxy,  and  to  reanimate 
the  faith  of  the  natives,  and  the  few  influential  heads  of 
Arab  communities  in  the  large  towns,  who  are  more  or 
less  the  spiritual  directors  of  such  communities  ; on  the 
other  hand  are  the  traders  and  travelling  merchants. 

The  Javanese  retains  a certain  traditional  respect  for 
the  Arab,  who  was  formerly  his  religious  sponsor  : he 
regards  the  Arab  as  of  the  noblest  race  of  all,  because  he 
is  descended  more  or  less  remotely  from  Mahomed,  and 
because  he  is  a Musulman. 

For  the  rest,  it  is  indubitable  that  among  the  Arabs  of 
the  East  Indies  are  some  of  a rebellious  type  of  ortho- 
doxy : often  smitten  with  the  ambitious  dream  of  pan- 
Islamism,  by  which  the  Musulman  of  the  East  who  has 
been  subjected  to  the  intellectual  hegemony  of  the  West 
attempts  as  far  as  may  be  to  console  his  pride.  It  hurts 
them  to  see  the  Indies,  where  formerly  they  were 
morally  predominant,  still  in  the  hands  of  the  infidels ; 
but  this  vague  and  secretive  state  of  mind  rarely  betrays 
itself  by  overt  acts  ; only  in  a few  individuals  does  it  find 
open  expression.  Nearly  all  the  Arabs  maintain  an 


AN  ARAB  TRADER,  SURABAJA. 


To  face  p.  156. 


ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT  157 


attitude  of  extreme  propriety  with  regard  to  the  Dutch 
authorities.  The  best,  who  are  also  the  most  highly 
placed,  by  reason  of  their  enlightened  views  of  religion 
and  of  justice  : the  others  because  they  know  themselves 
weak  in  the  presence  of  a well-organised  power.  With 
the  exception  of  a few  petty  and  unfortunate  intrigues 
on  the  part  of  subordinate  Turkish  agents,  all  the 
religious  disturbances  of  the  last  thirty  years  have  been 
the  work  not  of  Arabs  but  of  Javanese  or  Malays,  who 
have  returned  from  Mecca,  having  there  been  transformed 
into  fanatics  by  the  retrograde  beliefs  and  impossible 
hopes  upon  which  the  colony  of  Djawas  still  nourish 
themselves.  The  Dutch  have  had  far  more  trouble  with 
the  Javanese  and  Malay  pupils  of  the  Arabs,  who  have 
been  influenced  by  the  dangerous  and  fanatical  atmo- 
sphere of  Mecca.1 

There  is  more  to  criticise  in  the  commercial  habits  of 
the  Arabs.  Their  name  in  the  Far  East,  as  in  France 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  is  synonymous  with  usury 
and  deceit.  As  regards  their  dealings  with  the  Euro- 
peans, their  economic  competition  with  whom  is  com- 
plicated by  a sullen  political  hostility,  they  are  accused, 
with  only  too  good  reason,  of  failing  to  meet  their 
engagements  ; of  abusing  sleeping  partners  and  vendors 
by  a comedy  of  probity,  which  they  sometimes  prolong 
for  years,  and  then,  just  as  they  have  negotiated  a heavy 

1 “ As  early  as  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  groups  of  East 
Indian  Mahomedans  of  considerable  importance  in  Mecca,  which 
had  already  been  established  there  for  some  time  ; they  were  the 
nucleus  of  the  colony  of  the  ‘ Djawas,’  or  Musulmans  of  Malay 
race,  which  is  to-day  so  numerous,  and  which  comprises  natives 
from  all  parts  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.”  Dr.  C.  Snouck  Hurgronje, 
La  Politique  du  gouvernement  des  Indes  Neerlandaises  a I’egard  de 
Hadjis  (trans.  into  French  by  T.  J.  Bezemer  in  the  Rev.  du  Monde 
musul.,  vol.  viii.,  Nos.  7-8,  p.  401).  In  Mekka,  a work  by  the  same 
author,  in  the  last  chapters  of  vol.  ii.,  is  a curious  study  of  the  colony 
of  the  “ Djawas.”  The  Rev.  de  I’hist.  des  relig.,  1908,  has  also  pub- 
lished an  article  by  Dr.  Snouck  Hurgronje  entitled  V Arabic  et 
les  Indes  Neerlandaises,  which  is  the  opening  lesson  in  his  course 
on  Arabic  at  Leyden  U niversity. 


158 


JAVA 


loan,  or  a large  purchase  on  credit,  of  taking  flight  like 
common  swindlers.  As  regards  the  Javanese,  who 
started  by  regarding  them  with  favour  on  account  of 
their  community  of  belief,  they  are  accused  of  shameless 
usury,  and  of  urging  the  Javanese,  credulous  and  impru- 
dent children  as  they  are,  to  ruinous  purchases  on  credit. 

The  only  remedy,  supposing  these  grievances  to  be 
well  founded,  is  for  the  European  to  take  such  precau- 
tions in  doubtful  transactions  with  the  Arab  that  the 
latter,  who  is  naturally  a good  man  of  business,  is  quickly 
made  to  feel  that  his  only  chance  of  trade  in  the  Indies 
lies  in  honest  dealing  ; this  is  a lesson  which,  if  neces- 
sary, must  be  taught  him  against  his  will.  Suspicion 
on  the  part  of  the  customer  is  always  the  beginning 
of  honesty  on  the  part  of  the  vendor. 

Similarly,  the  best  means  of  delivering  the  heedless 
and  extravagant  Javanese  from  the  yoke  of  the  Arab  in 
matters  commercial  is  to  enlighten  him  as  to  his  real 
interests ; to  educate  him  in  business  matters,  in  order 
to  teach  him  to  look  after  himself.  A man  is  never 
better  defended  than  by  himself. 


III. 

The  Chinese  question  is  more  complicated,  because 
the  Chinese  possess  three  important  advantages: 
numbers,  wealth,  and  ability.  In  every  important  city 
they  form  a thickly  peopled  colony  : there  are  28,150  in 
Batavia,  13,636  in  Samarang,  16,843  Surabaja,  5,266 
in  Djokjakarta,  and  6,532  in  Surakarta  ; one  finds  them 
wherever  there  is  money  to  be  made;  and  their  presence 
anywhere  is  enough  to  denote  some  known  or  possible 
source  of  gain.1  The  Dutch  say  they  collect  like  vultures 

1 “ These  strangers  (the  Japanese  and  the  Chinese)  are  as  the 
Jews,  and  even  worse  ; they  go  never  into  any  poor  or  barren  land, 
but  live  always  and  traffic  in  those  countries  where  milk  runs  and 
honey,  where  they  may  derive  profit”  (Gabaril  de  S.  Antonio. 
Successos  del  reyne  de  Camboxa  (Valladolid,  1604),  fol.  78.  The 
period  of  which  he  speaks  dates  from  1580  to  1600). 


o 


K 

U 

-4 

Q 

W 

a* 

w 

C/3 

w 

2 

< 

Q 

2 

D 

C/3 

< 


AN  ARAB  TRADER’S  WIFE. 


ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT  159 


about  their  prey.  The  Chinamen,  so  one  always  hears, 
arrives  emaciated,  naked,  with  an  empty  stomach,  and 
without  a sou  ; but,  once  in  Java,  by  force  of  work, 
adaptability,  sobriety,  and  activity  always  alert,  in  the 
space  of  two  years  his  purse  and  his  stomach  fill  out,  so 
that  he  is  able  to  leave  the  master  tailor,  shoemaker, 
shopkeeper,  or  manufacturer  with  whom  he  first  took 
service.  He  begins  to  work  for  his  own  profit.  Very 
often  a pedlar  or  packman,  were  it  only  to  gain  a better 
knowledge  of  the  country,  and  to  go  adventuring  after 
that  continually  looked-for  occasion,  the  chance  of  a 
certain  fortune,  he  sets  out,  indefatigable,  with  a com- 
plaisance that  nothing  can  rebuff,  so  that  when  he 
returns  from  his  tour,  with  his  money-bags  fuller,  and 
the  richer  by  a profound  experience,  he  is  ripe  for 
larger  enterprises,  and  he  knows  where  to  find  them. 

Thus  patiently  the  Chinaman  becomes  one  of  the 
great  owners  of  the  island,  whose  luxury  exacerbates  the 
envy  of  the  Europeans  ; a drain  upon  the  public  fortune 
which  must  not  be  overlooked.  The  value  of  Chinese 
property  in  Java  is  estimated  at  .£16,000,000. 

A buyer  and  a seller  of  all  kinds  of  merchandise ; a 
manufacturer  who  will  buy  and  renovate  abandoned 
workshops  ; a farmer  of  State  monopolies,  which  he 
nearly  always  obtains  through  always  having  ready 
money,  and  having  obtained,  oppresses  the  people  with- 
out remorse  in  order  to  regain  his  money  and  his  profit  ; 
a lender  of  small  sums  by  the  week  and  a large  banker  ; 
always  smiling  and  supple,  whatever  be  his  fortune, 
where  he  smells  a profit ; pitiless  to  his  creditors,  whose 
debts  he  will  impudently  increase  with  the  utmost 
effrontery,  and  on  whom  he  will  cheerfully  bring  com- 
plete ruin  ; such  is  the  Chinaman.  He  has,  in  short,  all 
the  intelligence  and  all  the  crude  immorality  of  what 
men  agree  in  calling  “a  man  of  business.” 

The  Europeans  in  the  Indies,  as  formerly  in  Indo- 
China  and  other  Asiatic  countries,  complain  furiously  of 
the  Chinaman  ; and  their  angry  protests  are  not  always 
without  foundation.  They  reproach  him  with  creating 


160 


JAVA 


a dishonest  competition,  and  with  ruining  the  Javanese. 
The  competition  between  Celestial  and  European  is  no 
new  thing  in  the  Dutch  Indies.  When  the  Dutch,  the 
victors  over  the  Portuguese,  wished  to  extend  their  rule 
to  Java,  they  had  far  more  trouble  with  the  hostile 
Chinese  merchants,  who  had  been  in  the  island  for 
centuries,  than  with  the  open  revolt  of  the  Musulman 
princes.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  they  often  made  the 
Chinese  pay  in  the  cruellest  fashion  ; for  the  struggle 
was  desperate  between  1737  and  1741,  and  many  Chinese 
were  put  to  death. 

The  scission  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Mataram  into 
the  two  Principalities  of  Djokjakarta  and  Surakarta 
took  place  in  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
simply  to  punish  and  thenceforth  to  prevent  the  secret 
assistance  which  the  Susuhunan  had  lent  to  a horde  of 
Chinese  who  had  offered  to  rid  him  of  the  Dutch.  The 
Chinese,  despite  their  number,  were  massacred  without 
pity,  and  the  Susuhunan,  although  it  was  not  obvious 
at  the  time,  paid  with  the  half  of  his  territory  for  his 
tacit  connivance  in  the  intrigue. 

Slowly  deprived  by  the  Dutch  of  their  political  pre- 
dominance, the  wily  Asiatics  took  their  stand  anew 
upon  the  economic  battle-ground ; the  Europeans  to- 
day complain  that  they  ruin  the  market  by  offering 
goods  similar  to  theirs  at  a far  lower  price,  thanks  to 
the  incredible  conditions  under  which  their  newly- 
landed  countrymen  are  forced  to  work,  and  because 
they  themselves  can  live  on  nothing.  Thus  at  one 
stroke  they  exploit  their  own  countrymen,  the  Euro- 
peans, and  the  Javanese,  whom  they  persuade  into 
making  unreasonable  purchases  of  articles  whose  value 
is  as  inferior  as  their  price  is  low.  The  argument  is  just 
a little  specious ; it  is  true  that  the  Chinese,  who  by 
reason  of  his  Asiatic  birth  and  his  tastes  lives  under 
conditions  which  are  infinitely  less  costly  than  those  of 
the  European,  can  sell  at  an  infinitely  lower  price,  even 
without  the  outrageous  exploitation  of  his  own  poorer 
compatriots  ; this  is  an  advantage  of  race  which  he  will 


ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT  161 


always  retain.  But  if  the  Chinaman  were  not  there,  can 
we  be  certain  that  the  native  would  enjoy  any  other 
advantage  than  that  of  paying  the  European  very  dearly 
for  articles  that  might  be  excellent,  but  beyond  his 
means  ? The  European  is  suffering  from  the  hard  law 
of  economic  competition  ; if  he  wishes  to  triumph,  he 
must  play  other  cards  than  the  expulsion  of  the  Chinese, 
who  have  by  now  become  one  of  the  indispensable 
factors  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Indies.1 

What  would  become  of  the  European  and  the  Dutch 
Government  without  the  presence  of  the  Chinaman  in 
Java  ? A hard  worker,  meditative,  mindful  of  his  respon- 
sibility, he  is  the  linch-pin  of  all  great  public  or  private 
enterprises ; to  the  native  the  necessary  intermediary, 
the  obscure  but  necessary  cog-wheel,  the  middleman, 
the  go-between,  whom  the  European  would  not  and  the 
Javanese  could  not  as  yet  replace.  One  finds  him  every- 
where ; one  needs  him  everywhere ; one  must  therefore 
accept  him,  while  limiting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  bad 
effects  of  his  role. 

One  thing  is  undeniable  : that  although  the  Chinaman 
may  penetrate  to  the  heart  of  the  remotest  kampongs, 

1 The  chief  reasonable  objection  to  the  Chinese  is  that  they  are 
apt  to  remove  large  sums  of  money  from  the  country ; though  in 
the  case  of  business  concerns  descending  from  father  to  son  this 
is  not  the  case.  But  even  where  it  is  the  case  we  must  remember 
that  the  Chinaman’s  fortune  is  only  his  wages  for  distribution ; it 
does  not  matter  to  the  Javanese  whether  a Chinaman  or  a railway 
brings  his  goods.  After  all,  the  Chinaman  is  an  element  of  national 
prosperity ; for  of  the  money  he  receives  much  goes  to  his 
employees,  who  use  it  to  purchase  food  from  the  Javanese  ; he  also 
imports  and  exports  goods.  The  Dutchman  almost  invariably 
retires  with  his  fortune  to  Europe  ; the  Chinaman  does  not  always 
take  his  fortune  out  of  the  country.  In  any  case  that  fortune  is  the 
wages  for  transactions  that  bring  money  to  Java.  Thus  the  objec- 
tion to  him  is  that  of  a jealous  rival ; he  is  less  of  a drain  on  the 
country  than  the  European.  To  impose  death  duties  and  to  teach 
the  native  thrift  and  self-control  would  make  the  Chinaman  still 
more  harmless  as  regards  Java ; while  the  Europeans  should  seek 
to  develop  those  branches  of  commerce  in  which  the  Chinaman 
cannot  compete  with  them. — [Trans.] 

12 


162 


JAVA 


there  to  introduce  the  goods,  the  tastes,  and  the  needs 
of  more  civilised  races,  he  is  often  accompanied  by  ruin. 
For  the  man  he  has  to  deal  with  as  customer  is  the  most 
irresponsible  and  prodigal  of  clients,  utterly  incapable 
of  weighing  the  consequences  of  his  acts,  desiring  every- 
thing, just  as  does  a child,  without  stopping  to  consider 
whether  he  will  ever  have  the  means  of  payment.  The 
Chinaman  demoralises  him  by  his  insistent  and  insinu- 
ating offers,  makes  him  buy  beyond  his  needs,  and 
allows  him  to  buy  upon  credit,  which  is  nearly  always 
the  best  form  of  legal  theft  when  one  has  the  poor  to 
deal  with.  He  furnishes  the  deadly  even  more  willingly 
than  the  useful;  he  will  rather  sell  opium1  than  cloth  ; 
he  will  lend  at  outrageous  rates  of  interest ; will  take  all 
the  native’s  possessions  in  payment  of  a trifle  ; deceives 
him  in  the  smallest  accounts ; and  having  first  appeared 
as  the  most  obsequious  of  servitors,  he  reveals  himself 
as  the  most  pitiless  of  masters.  For  this  evil,  although 
it  is  proven,  there  are  no  remedies  excepting  one,  the 
efficiency  of  which  some  Europeans  distrust  as  much 
as  they  distrust  the  Chinese  : to  educate  the  Javanese 
until  he  can  defend  himself  against  his  own  puerile 
covetousness,  and  against  the  temptations  of  the  Chinese, 
so  that  he  may  gradually  collaborate  with  the  European 
in  supplanting  them.  Such  a task  would  be  long  and 
far  from  easy,  yet  undoubtedly  possible.  Ten  years  ago 
the  train  running  between  Batavia  and  Surabaja  took 
two  whole  days  for  the  journey ; the  passengers  slept  at 
Maos,  as  they  were  assured  that  the  train  could  not 
proceed  by  night  ; the  thoughtlessness,  irresponsibility, 
and  idleness  of  the  native  drivers  and  stokers  making 
it  out  of  the  question  to  trust  them  for  a night  journey. 
For  some  time  now  they  must  have  reformed  themselves 
in  these  particulars,  for  the  train  pursues  its  way  by 
night  as  well  as  by  day.  Such  cases  are  seen  every- 
where, and  indeed  it  is  probable  that  the  Javanese, 

1 The  Sundanese,  thanks  to  the  Chinese,  have  begun  to  consume 
a deplorable*  amount  of  opium,  although  fifty  years  ago  they 
scarcely  knew  of  its  use. 


CHINESE  MERCHANT  AND  FAMILY. 


ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT  163 


having  hitherto  played  an  absolutely  subordinate  part 
in  all  important  undertakings,  may  nevertheless  one  day 
be  able,  if  only  they  are  given  an  appropriate  educa- 
tion, to  assist  the  Europeans  in  ousting  the  Chinaman. 
It  is  a desirable  consummation. 

IV. 

In  the  meantime  the  harshness  of  the  Chinese  influ- 
ence might  be  mitigated  by  progressively  abolishing  the 
process  of  farming  out  monopolies,  taxes,  &c.,  the 
recovery  of  which  is  so  oppressive,  and  often  so  unjust, 
that  the  State  contracts  for  them  in  order  to  be  rid  of 
the  business.  Even  the  most  case-hardened  of  Euro- 
peans sicken  at  the  business,  so  that  it  passes  almost 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  who  often 
squeeze  double  the  legal  tax  from  the  poverty-stricken 
natives.  The  opium  monopoly  has  already  been  almost 
entirely  wrested  from  the  Chinese  by  means  of  a scheme 
of  excise  based  upon  that  employed  in  Indo-China, 
greatly  to  the  benefit  of  the  native’s  intelligence  and  his 
savings.  The  native  is  being  gradually  weaned  from 
this  dangerous  drug,  while  the  Chinese  vendor  used  to 
force  its  consumption  by  every  possible  means.1  It  is 
equally  urgent  that  the  monopoly  of  lending  upon 
pledges  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  Chinese,  as 
they  abuse  it  in  order  to  despoil  the  natives,  although 
the  system  was  originally  intended  to  help  them.  This 
is  nearly  all  that  can  be  done  at  present. 

It  seems  hardly  possible,  either  morally  or  materially, 
to  deport  the  Chinese,  and  a matter  of  great  difficulty 
to  confine  them,  according  to  the  methods  of  another 
age,  to  a few  ports.  To  be  frank,  it  is  necessary  to 
reckon  with  the  enormous  State  which  stands  behind 
them,  and  also  with  the  economic  power  which  they 

* See  W.  P.  Groeneveldt,  Rapport  over  het  opium  monopolie  in 
Fransch  Indo-China  in  verband  met  de  vraag  in  hoever  beheer  in  regie 
van  dat  middel  voor  Nederlandsch-Indie  wenschelijk  is  (Batavia,  1890, 
large  8vo). 


164 


JAVA 


represent,  as  was  proved  by  the  decree  of  1837,  pro- 
hibiting further  Chinese  immigration  into  the  Indies, 
which  had  to  be  repealed.  On  the  other  hand,  since 
their  complete  political  docility  is  assured  by  their  or- 
ganisation into  communities,  which  are  subject  to  the 
commands  of  a “ major,”  “ captain,”  or  “ lieutenant,” 
appointed  by  the  Dutch  authorities,  would  not  the 
simplest  plan  of  dealing  with  them  be  to  “Javanise” 
those  who  are  in  the  island,  and  to  limit  further  immi- 
gration, especially  of  women  ? For  the  Chinese  woman 
is  the  chief  danger;  she  creates  a home  abroad  for  the 
immigrant ; a home  foreign,  if  not  hostile,  to  the  Indies. 

Impenetrable  though  the  Chinaman  seems  to  be  in  his 
inner  self,  he  is  really  extraordinary  in  the  ease  with 
which  he  adapts  himself  to  his  surroundings.  When 
fortune  smiles  upon  him  he  seems  at  once  to  be  at  home, 
and  if  he  is  not  wealthy  enough  to  have  his  wife  sent 
over  from  China  he  will  take  a wife  in  Java,  or  at  least 
a concubine,  who  is  of  the  utmost  value  to  him  in  his 
business,  on  account  of  her  profound  knowledge  of  his 
world.  Again,  the  concubine  is  often  extremely  useful 
to  him  in  his  schemes  for  obtaining  land  ; for  example, 
she  will  lend  her  name  to  the  purchase  of  a plot  of  land, 
supposing  it  to  belong  to  a territory  which  is  now  for- 
bidden him,  and  which  becomes  a portion  of  the  real 
estate  which  he  and  his  compatriots  have  gradually 
accumulated,  either  when  the  State  was  alienating  its 
territory,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  or  when  private 
individuals  have  sold  their  own  holdings,  which  were 
bought  at  the  same  period.  Attached  to  Java  by  reason 
of  their  affection  for  the  soil,  and  the  families  they  have 
reared  in  the  island,  there  are  very  few  chances  of  their 
returning  to  China ; in  the  majority  of  cases  the  China- 
man’s Javanese  wife  and  children  alone  are  sufficient  to 
retain  him  in  the  island.  Although  some,  after  amassing 
a fortune,  abandon  their  temporary  families  and  return 
to  China,  and  although  some  of  those  who  temporarily 
settle  in  the  Indies,  having  brought  their  families  with 
them,  come  with  the  sole  end  of  amassing  money,  there 


ORIENTAL  FOREIGN  ELEMENT  165 


are  also  many  who  will  settle  for  good,  and  their  children 
will  be  only  half  Chinese,  while  their  grandchildren  will 
be  Javanese,  with  a superiority  in  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion and  business  traditions  which  will  greatly  facilitate 
their  progress.  These  latter  only  should  be  favoured. 

It  is  worth  remarking  that  in  many  localities  the 
Chinese,  allied  by  ties  of  blood  with  the  native  Malays 
and  Javanese,  ask  nothing  better  than  a community 
of  interest  with  these  latter.  They  even  issue  some 
Chino-Javanese  newspapers  in  which  their  demands  are 
published,  and  which  help  the  Javanese  to  fight  the  good 
fight  in  order  to  force  their  way  into  the  European 
schools  and  obtain  their  share  of  Western  culture.  For 
the  Chinaman,  so  obstinately  conservative  in  his  own 
country,  elsewhere  demands,  although  his  object  is 
purely  utilitarian,  the  knowledge  which  will  the  better 
enable  him  to  struggle  against  his  economic  competi- 
tors.1 It  would  indeed  be  strange,  however  vigorous 
their  personality,  if  in  the  long  run  a fixed  population  of 
some  150,000  Chinamen,  married  to  native  women, 
could  not  be  absorbed  by  a population  of  more  than 
29,000,000. 

As  for  the  means  of  restraining  the  immigration  of 
the  Chinese  without  notorious  harshness,  it  would  seem 
that  a system  of  taxes,  comparable  to  that  already  in 
successful  operation  in  the  United  States,  should  be 
sufficient  in  Java,  if  the  taxes  were  adequate. 

Besides  an  annual  poll-tax,  a comparatively  high 
entrance  duty,  and  a tax  upon  revenue  and  industry, 
the  Dutch  Government  should  demand  of  the  new-comer 
the  possession  of  a trade,  a surety,  and  savings  enough 
to  prevent  his  immediately  becoming  a burden  on  the 
colony  or  fattening  himself  entirely  at  its  expense.  But 
measures  of  this  sort,  if  half-hearted,  lose  their  pro- 

1 Numbers  of  the  Chinese  established  in  the  East  Indies  speak 
Dutch,  and  often  English.  It  seems  that  there  is  talk  of  publishing 
a newspaper  in  the  Dutch  language,  subsidised  by  the  Chinese, 
which  will  uphold  their  interests.  At  the  present  time  the  Malay 
press  in  Java  is  almost  entirely  in  their  hands. 


166 


JAVA 


hibitive  character ; they  must  either  be  re-enforced  or 
renounced. 

The  great  drawback  to  the  employment  of  such 
measures  is  that  the  inequality  of  such  treatment,  com- 
pared with  favourable  treatment  of  the  Japanese,  would  be 
rather  too  flagrant.  Since  the  Japanese  have  been  treated 
with  consideration,  the  Chinese  insistently  demand  similar 
consideration,  and  they  can  only  be  denied  by  sheer  right 
of  sovereignty.  Despairing  of  obtaining  equal  treatment 
by  straightforward  means,  some  have  hit  upon  a ruse 
which  is  natural  enough,  but  little  likely  to  conciliate  the 
sympathies  of  the  colonists;  they  proceed  to  Formosa,  in 
order  that  they  may,  after  being  settled  there  for  some 
little  time,  become  naturalised  Japanese,  and  then,  with 
all  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  latter,  deliberately  settle 
down  in  Java.  It  is  probable  that  such  as  these,  who 
will  soon  be  of  three  nationalities,  will  hardly  be  in  the 
most  formidable  category  of  Chinamen  in  respect  of  the 
natives. 

It  is  true  that  the  competition  between  Chinese  and 
Japanese  will  probably  lead,  without  much  delay,  to  the 
elimination  of  these  too  newly-branded  Japanese. 

Nevertheless,  in  an  age  when  the  employment  of 
violent  measures  against  a whole  category  of  individuals 
is  always  futile  or  dangerous,  we  must  repeat  that  the 
best  means  of  defence  against  the  preponderant  influence 
of  the  Chinese  in  Java  is  to  teach  the  Javanese,  who  are 
teachable  in  the  extreme,  to  beware  of  them,  and  to 
replace  them  as  quickly  as  possible  in  practically  every 
employment  into  which  they  have  insinuated  themselves.1 

1 Concerning  the  Chinese  question  in  the  Dutch  Indies,  see  the 
following  works  : G.  A.  Romer,  Chineezenvrees  in  Indie,  cited  from 
Vragen  des  Tijds  (Haarlem,  1897,  8vo) ; W.  de  Veer,  Chineezen  otider 
Hollandsche  vlag  (Amsterdam,  1908,  8vo). 


NATIVE  POLICEMEN. 

(The  forked  poles  are  for  holding  down  natives  in  a state  of  amok.) 


To  face  p.  166. 


Is.* 


CHAPTER  VIII 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 

I.  The  three  aspects  of  the  European  element  in  the  Dutch 
Indies  : army,  colonisation,  bureaucracy.  The  army. — II.  The 
colonists : foreigners,  and  why  so  few  settle  in  Java.  The 
French  colony. — III.  The  Dutch  colony.  Its  relations  with 
the  State  and  the  natives  ; despite  the  vast  area  of  the  planta- 
tions, there  are  few  private  freeholds  ; the  planter  is  the  tenant 
of  the  State  or  of  the  natives ; sometimes  of  both  together. — 
IV.  His  life : his  house,  furniture,  and  costume ; his  food, 
servants,  and  amusements. — V.  The  instability  of  European 
families  in  Java  ; why  they  do  not  settle  there  without  thought 
of  return. — VI.  The  half-breeds. 


I. 

The  Europeans  and  those  of  mingled  European  blood 
form  a population  of  80,910  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  : 
of  these  64,917  are  in  Java  and  Madura.  These  figures 
do  not  include  Europeans  serving  in  the  army,  whose 
numbers  are  10,732,  not  including  a reserve  of  2,200 
officers  and  men. 

This  colonial  army  ( leger ),  which  attains  the  total  war 
strength  of  33,682,  is  an  organism  in  no  way  connected 
with  the  national  army  of  Holland.  It  always  contains 
a proportion  of  one-third  of  Europeans  to  two-thirds  of 
natives,  excepting  in  the  case  of  crack  regiments,  where 
this  proportion  is  reversed.  In  the  native  companies  the 
officers  and  a large  number  of  the  non-commissioned 
officers  are  Europeans  ; in  the  artillery  the  gunners  are 
always  Europeans,  while  the  drivers,  &c.,  are  natives. 

The  army  is  recruited  in  Europe  and  in  the  Indies, 
by  voluntary  enlistment.  The  officers  are  drawn  almost 

167 


168 


JAVA 


entirely  from  the  Dutch  army,  and  have  usually  passed 
through  the  military  colleges  of  Kampen  and  Breda. 
Besides  an  initial  kit,  the  sub-lieutenant  receives  a lodging, 
or  an  allowance  for  the  same,  and  a minimum  pay  of  170 
florins  a month,  which  increases,  according  to  the  rank 
obtained,  to  a maximum  of  2,000  florins  for  a lieutenant- 
general  of  troops.  At  the  end  of  forty  years  of  service — 
twenty  in  practice,  the  years  passed  in  the  Indies 
counting  double,  like  the  French  “campaigns” — he 
obtains  a retiring  pension  which  varies  from  1,200  to 
9,000  florins  per  annum. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  are  paid 
according  to  their  country  of  origin  and  the  arm  with 
which  they  serve.  The  daily  pay  varies  from  o fl.  33  to 
o fl.  44  for  the  European,  and  from  o fl.  21  to  o fl.  25  for 
the  native.  To  this  is  added  uniform,1  food,  lodging  for 
men  and  families,  and  supplementary  rations  proportioned 
to  the  needs  of  each.  Here  we  have  not  the  least  original 
point  of  the  colonial  army  : each  soldier  has  the  right 
to  lodge  with  himself  in  the  barracks  his  wife  or  con- 
cubine and  their  children ; he  may  even,  under  certain 
circumstances,  take  them  with  him  on  campaign ; these 
measures,  against  which  morality  occasionally  fulminates, 
are  designed  to  attach  the  soldier  to  his  hard  calling, 
which  is  not  merely  a temporary  affair  as  with  the  mass 
of  soldiers  in  Europe,  while  granting  the  advantages  of  a 
family  or  a very  modest  harem.  Their  most  obvious 
result  is  to  turn  the  barracks,  however  neatly  they  are 
kept,  into  a squealing  nursery,  and  to  enrich  the  colony 
with  half-breeds  of  all  shades  and  races. 

The  majority  of  the  white  soldiers  are  Dutch.  To 
these  we  must  add  a small  contingent  of  deserters  and 
adventurers  : German,  English,  Belgian,  Swiss,  and  a few 
French. 

Among  the  natives  the  most  valued  are  the  Amboinese, 
for  their  fidelity  and  intelligence ; and  the  Javanese,  for 
their  disciplined  obedience. 

1 Only  the  European  and  Amboinese  soldiers  wear  boots  or 
shoes. — The  florin  is  one-twelfth  of  the  pound  sterling. 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


169 


The  officers  of  the  Dutch  colonial  army  have  the  name 
of  being  remarkable  trainers  of  men  ; full  of  initiative 
and  technical  knowledge  ; and  as  there  are  always  dis- 
turbances here  and  there  in  so  large  an  empire,  they  have 
scarcely  the  leisure  to  lose  either  of  these  qualities. 

II. 

Outside  the  army,  the  Europeans  are  divided  into 
colonists  and  officials.  The  Indies  have  been  open  to 
neither  for  any  great  length  of  time.  The  Commercial 
Company  or  East  Indian  Company,  which  obtained  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  Indies  and  retained  it  until 
1796,  when  its  liquidation  was  announced  as  the  result  of 
a bankruptcy  amounting  to  more  than  .£10,000,000,  dealt 
with  the  Indies  for  purely  commercial  ends.  We  may 
say  that  it  came  to  figure  as  a sovereign  power  against  its 
will ; as  it  was  obliged  to  reduce  by  force  of  arms  the 
native  states  which  refused  the  only  thing  for  which  the 
Company  sued,  namely,  a certain  quantity  of  the  products 
of  the  country  : spices,  cotton  thread,  vanilla  and  cinna- 
mon, for  which  it  paid  little  or  nothing,  according  to 
circumstances,  and  sold  at  very  high  prices  in  a market 
whose  rates  the  Company  itself  established,  thanks  to 
the  absence  of  competition.  By  such  means  it  earned 
enormous  profits.  It  was  in  nowise  inclined  to  squander 
them  upon  Imperialistic  expeditions,  which  is  the  reason 
why  it  conquered,  almost  in  self-defence,  its  immense 
possessions,  according  to  the  degree  in  which  they  might 
maintain  or  increase  its  profits. 

Neither  had  it  any  ambition  to  share  its  possessions 
with  the  Dutch  nation ; at  the  best  it  shared  them 
jealously  with  its  shareholders.  It  did  not  intend  that 
any  Dutchman  should  set  foot  in  the  Indies,  excepting 
a few  agents  and  employees,  carefully  recruited,  with  an 
eye  to  their  capacities  or  their  unscrupulous  loyalty  to 
the  Company.  It  wished  to  behave  as  suited  it,  and  to 
take  everything  for  itself.  For  the  people  of  Holland, 
accordingly,  Java  remained  a strange  and  distant  land, 


170 


JAVA 


very  beautiful  and  wealthy,  but  a forbidden  land,  by 
which  one  could  benefit  only  indirectly. 

The  Company  attained  its  climacteric  between  1654 
and  1678,  when  John  Maetsuyher  was  Governor.  Imme- 
diately afterwards  the  decline  set  in  : slow,  but  irre- 
mediable, in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  six  Chambers  and 
the  famous  Council  which  was  the  soul  of  this  mercantile 
oligarchy.  In  spite  of  the  jealous  care  that  was  taken  to 
reduce  to  three  or  four  species  the  spices  which  were 
grown  for  the  Company  in  certain  islands,  which  were 
narrowly  watched  in  order  to  guard  the  monopoly,  the 
European  market  finally  contrived  to  supply  itself  from 
America  and  Africa  ; the  establishment  of  the  English  in 
India  was  also  to  bring  ruin  upon  the  Company  by  a still 
more  formidable  competition,  which  still  further  lowered 
prices ; and  this  ruin  was  finally  consummated  by  the 
unlicensed  luxury  of  the  Company’s  agents,  who,  in  spite 
of  various  sumptuary  decrees,  insisted  upon  appearing 
everywhere  with  the  pomp  of  Asiatic  potentates,  and, 
when  the  coffers  were  empty,  of  procuring  money  by 
oppressing  the  natives,  who  rose  against  them  ; whence 
a series  of  costly  expeditions.1 

The  war  with  England  caused  the  rotten  pear  to  fall. 
In  1798  the  Crown  of  Holland  displaced  the  Company, 
and  proceeded  to  draw  the  greater  part  of  the  wealth 
of  the  Indies.  The  Crown,  it  appeared,  had  no  idea  of 
repairing  the  errors  of  the  Company  ; it  was  equally 
careless  of  the  needs  of  the  natives ; it  distrusted  all 
Dutchmen  who  were  not  in  its  service  ; it  had  the  same 
utilitarian  and  egoistical  conception  of  exploiting  the 

1 Concerning  the  privileged  Company  of  Commerce  in  the  East 
Indies  see  De  Geoctroijeerde  Nederlandsche  Oost-Indische  Compagnie, 
by  Baron  G.  G.  d’lmhoff  ; Considerations  sur  I’etat  present  de  la 
Compagnie  Hollandoise  des  Indes  Orientales,  relativement  a sa  navi- 
gation, a son  commerce,  et  a son  gouvernement ; et  sur  les  moyens  de 
remedier  aux  causes  de  sa  decadence  (La  Haye,  P.  de  Hondt,  1763, 
4to)  ; J.  P.  I.  du  Bois,  Vie  des  Gouverneurs  generaux ; A.  Chambalu, 
Die  Holldndisch-Ostindische  Gesellschaft  (1602-1798)  kein  Voebild  fur 
unsere  Kolonisationsgesellschaften  (Cologne,  1891,  4to) ; Dr.  S.  van 
Brakel,  De  Hollandsche  handels-compagnieen  der  zeventiende  eeuw. 
Hun  ontstaan.  Hun  inrichting  (The  Hague,  1908,  large  8vo). 


THE  BACK  OF  THE  CHINESE  KAMPOXG,  BATAVIA. 


CHINESE  KAMPONG,  BATAVIA. 


To  face  p.  170. 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


171 


Indies.  Nevertheless,  it  was  obliged  to  proclaim  the 
freedom  of  colonial  trade,  and  many  a bold  spirit  slipped 
in  through  the  sullenly  opened  door. 

The  government  of  the  great  Marshal  Daendels,  the 
“ Napoleon  of  the  Indies”  (1808-1811),  and  the  period  of 
the  English  occupation  under  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  and 
Lord  Minto  (1811-1816)  were,  despite  all  their  troubles, 
as  successful  as  they  were  beneficial  to  Java  itself. 
Daendels  and  Raffles,  pressed  by  necessity,  were  forced 
to  alienate  the  last  remnants  of  State  territory,  which  thus 
passed  into  private  hands,  opening  a vast  field  to  private 
initiative. 

The  scission  with  Belgium,  the  war  which  followed  in 
Holland,  the  enormous  deficit  which  it  left  in  the  Dutch 
exchequer,  and  the  system  of  forced  labour  designed  to 
fill  it,  unhappily  paralysed  this  first  renewal  of  life.  In 
1850,  however,  when  the  system  of  compulsory  labour  was 
condemned  by  public  opinion,  colonists  reappeared  in 
the  Indies,  to  replace  forced  by  free  labour  ; and  in  i860, 
when  slavery  had  been  officially  suppressed,  and  in  1873, 
the  State  having  resolutely  assumed  its  essential  duty  of 
protecting  and  educating  the  natives,  Europeans  were 
encouraged,  and  hastened  to  establish  themselves  as 
colonists.  The  distrust  of  the  Government,  hardly 
recovered  from  so  many  warnings,  and  always  suspicious 
of  covetousness  in  others,  was  at  last  pacified  ; to-day, 
thanks  to  her  climate  and  her  inexhaustible  agricultural 
resources,  Java  ranks  high  among  the  countries  of  Asia 
as  the  home  of  many  Europeans. 

Nearly  all  the  Europeans  in  Java  are  Dutch.  Holland, 
a country  of  merchants  and  sailors,  and  one  of  the 
wealthiest  in  Europe,  in  proportion  to  the  numerical 
weakness  of  her  population,  has  had  no  need  to  borrow, 
as  it  were,  from  other  nations,  either  colonists,  merchants, 
manufacturers,  or  money. 

The  Dutch  own  the  most  desirable  of  all  colonies, 
having  regard  to  their  national  characteristics ; which 
explains  why  they  are  to  be  found  in  Java  in  far  greater 
numbers  than  the  English  in  India  or  the  French  in 


172 


JAVA 


Indo-China.  The  European  non-Dutch  element  (not 
counting  European  soldiers)  consisted  in  Java  and 
Madura,  in  the  year  1907,  of  800  Germans,  whom  one 
finds  under  all  skies  and  in  all  latitudes,  about  180 
English,  274  Belgians,  146  French,  and  a few  Italians. 

Java,  for  reasons  already  given  and  for  others,  such  as 
its  over-population  by  the  natives,  whence  labour  is  very 
cheap,  and  the  absence  of  mines  of  gold  or  silver  capable 
of  enriching  the  prospector  by  a sudden  stroke  of  luck, 
has  no  attractions  for  poor  Europeans.  They  could  not 
perform  manual  work  on  account  of  the  climate  ; and 
there  are  no  gratuitous  concessions  of  land.  The  French 
in  Holland  are  mostly  hairdressers  or  tailors  ; presently, 
no  doubt,  the  number  of  modistes  will  increase,  as  the 
Dutch  are  now  inclined  to  abandon  the  fashion  of  going 
bareheaded  in  the  evenings,  as  did  the  Spaniards  in  the 
Philippines,  and  as  the  women  of  South  America  do. 
A few  Frenchmen  go  to  Java  as  planters,  cultivating 
sugar-cane  or  coffee  on  land  rented  on  a long  lease  from 
the  State,  with  the  help  of  considerable  capital.  Such  a 
course  is  the  only  means  of  making  money  in  Java,  as  it 
is  in  India  and  Indo-China.  There  should  be  room,  how- 
ever, for  merchants  and  for  young  electrical  engineers, 
as  many  factories  have  need  of  the  latter,  and  Holland 
does  not  herself  produce  them. 

The  stranger,  of  whatever  nationality,  or  even  the 
Dutchman  newly  landed  in  the  Indies,  is  required  within 
three  days  of  his  arrival  to  present  himself  to  the 
authorities  in  order  to  establish  his  identity  by  means 
of  his  passport,  and  to  declare  whence  he  comes,  where 
he  is  going,  and  his  purpose  ; and  this  must  be  done 
under  penalty  of  a five-florin  fine  for  each  day  of  delay, 
and  expulsion  if  he  shows  himself  evidently  unwilling  to 
comply  with  their  formalities.1  This  supervision,  if  at 

1 On  the  pier  of  the  Messageries  Maritimes,  which  runs  the  service 
between  Singapore  and  Batavia,  the  following  notice  is  displayed  : — 

“Admission  of  Foreigners  to  the  Dutch  Indies. 

“ Every  person  without  exception  not  a resident  in  the  Dutch 
Indies,  is  required  to  present  himself  to  the  chief  local  authority 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


173 


first  sight  a trifle  strict,  is  perfectly  comprehensible ; 
surrounded  with  powerful  neighbours,  and  having  to 
maintain  order  throughout  a great  empire  with  the  least 
possible  display  of  force,  Holland  prefers  prevention 
rather  than  reprimand,  and  would  rather  examine  her 
guests  at  the  outset  than  be  forced  to  expel  them  from 
the  island  if  they  turn  out  badly.  Once  the  new-comer 
is  accepted,  the  Government  is  extremely  cordial  in  its 
relations  with  him,  and  no  one  receives  a warmer 
welcome  than  the  Dutch  planter  in  Java. 

III. 

The  colonist  in  Java,  where  the  soil  contains  little 
subterranean  wealth,  is  essentially  an  agriculturist ; and 
the  numerous  factories  which  are  building  in  every 
part  of  the  island  are  only  for  the  preparation  of  the 
true  treasures  of  the  land  : coffee,  tea,  sugar,  tobacco, 
quinine,  &c. 

The  plantation,  which  is  often  over  250  acres  in  extent, 
may  pass  into  the  colonist's  hands  in  three  different 
manners.  He  may  have  bought  one  of  those  great 
private  tracts  which  the  Company  in  its  decline,  and 
Daendels  and  Raffles  in  the  early  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  sold  at  the  instance  of  a pressing  need  of 
money.  Some  of  these  estates  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Europeans,  some  into  the  hands  of  the  Chinese.1  Some 

of  the  place  where  he  or  she  finally  leaves  the  vessel  in  which  the 
voyage  has  been  accomplished  within  three  days  of  his  or  her  arrival, 
in  order  to  prove  his  or  her  identity,  and  to  declare  whence  he 
or  she  has  come,  and  with  what  object  he  or  she  has  arrived  in 
the  Dutch  Indies. 

“A  fine  of  /5  (five  florins)  per  day  of  delay  is  incurred  in  case 
this  call  is  not  made  within  the  prescribed  period  of  three  days, 
but  the  total  amount  of  such  fine  cannot  exceed  fioo  (100  florins).” 

The  same  notice  is  displayed  in  the  public  offices  of  Tandjong 
Priok  and  on  the  tramways  of  Batavia.  The  introduction  of  native 
“servants”  or  boys  coming  from  abroad  is  prohibited,  or  at  least 
causes  all  kinds  of  difficulty. 

1 These  territories,  which  are  no  longer  capable  of  extension, 
cover  an  area  of  some  2,500,000  acres. 


174 


JAVA 


are  immense  tracts  of  untilled  land,  very  difficult  to 
break  up  for  agriculture,  owing  to  the  lack  of  sufficient 
labourers  ; some  are  highly  and  completely  cultivated, 
containing  one  or  more  villages,  which  pay  rent  or  dues, 
and  with  regard  to  the  owner  are  situated  somewhat  as 
a vassal  with  regard  to  his  sovereign.  On  such  an  estate 
the  owner  may  plant  his  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  or  coffee, 
and  build  his  factory  and  his  house,  provided  that  he 
does  not  seriously  infringe  the  rights  of  any  of  the 
natives,  who  are  under  the  protection  of  the  State.  But 
however  large  such  an  estate  may  be,  the  colonist  does 
not  often  retain  it  in  his  own  hands.  When  he  has  the 
chance  of  acquiring  one  of  these  private  properties  he 
very  commonly  divides  it  : for  how  can  he  tell  whether 
his  son  will  be  content  to  live  in  Java  after  him, 
and  continue  his  work,  supposing  that  he  has  a family  ? 
In  climates  where  the  violent  action  of  nature  seems 
for  ever  renewing  the  aspect  of  physical  objects,  he  does 
not  experience  any  unreasonable  desire  of  permanency  ; 
and  if  he  owns  land  he  rarely  retains  in  freehold 
more  than  the  plot  on  which  his  house  or  factory  is 
built. 

As  a general  thing  the  planter  rents  his  land  from  the 
State.  The  State  is  the  principal  owner  in  the  island  ; 
but  has  reserved  an  enormous  private  domain  for  its  own 
exploitation,  or  for  that  of  the  natives  with  the  permission 
of  the  State.  The  State  gives  the  planter  the  land  he 
requires  as  leasehold  tenant  ( erfpachter ),  often  for  a term 
of  seventy-five  years — the  duration,  and  more,  of  a life, 
and  the  time  required  to  make  a fortune — for  a moderate 
annual  rent ; but  in  a district  where  labourers  are  rare. 
The  native,  supervised  by  the  State,  which  will  not  allow 
him  to  be  despoiled,  can  sell  the  planter  only  a very 
small  portion  of  his  own  property  ; or  may  let,  for  twelve 
years  or  longer,  a slightly  smaller  portion,  on  which  the 
planter  will  build  his  factory  in  order  to  have  it  near  the 
village,  so  that  he  may  obtain  plenty  of  inexpensive 
labour.  It  may  thus  often  happen  that  the  colonist  is  at 
once  the  tenant  of  the  State  in  respect  of  his  plantation, 


Sl'GAH-CANE,  JAVA. 


RICE  AND  COFFEE  LANDS,  JAVA. 


To  face  p.  174. 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


175 


and  the  tenant  of  the  native  in  respect  of  the  site  of  his 
factory  or  godowns. 

As  for  his  dwelling-house,  he  tries  to  build  it  on  land 
that  is  really  his  own  ; a desire  easy  to  comprehend,  and 
not  very  difficult  or  costly  to  realise. 

IV. 

The  chief  luxury  of  the  colonial  dwelling  in  Java,  as 
in  Indo-China,  and  nearly  all  countries  of  the  Far  East, 
is  its  setting,  which  nature  gives  for  nothing.  In  the 
midst  of  a vegetation  of  magnificent  trees  and  inter- 
twining creepers  (lianas),  the  planter’s  house  is  equally 
simple  and  spacious.  As  it  is  intended  principally  to 
form  a shelter  from  the  sun,  and  to  admit  as  much  fresh 
air  as  possible,  one  might  almost  say  that  it  chiefly  con- 
sists of  a roof  set  upon  four  corner-posts ; the  floor, 
which  is  raised  above  the  ground,  in  spite  of  the  absence 
of  cellars,  in  order  to  keep  it  comparatively  free  from 
animals  and  insects,1  is  covered  with  cement,  bricks,  or 
slabs  of  sandstone  ; or,  in  the  wealthier  houses,  is  flagged 
with  marble.  It  is  reached  by  an  outside  landing  of  two 
or  more  steps,  which  is  beautified  by  various  plants  and 
flowers.  As  a rule  the  house  has  no  upper  floor,  as  such 
an  arrangement  gives  the  inmates  the  benefit  of  lofty 

1 Various  species  of  lizard  : the  geckos,  or  tokke  (Malay  take,  tekek), 
whose  singular  cry  ( tokke  ! tokke !)  astonishes  the  new-comer  ; the 
hemi-dactyls  or  margouillats,  little  geckos  which  run  across  the 
ceilings,  which  in  Java  are  commonly  known  as  tytyaks  : these  little 
reptiles  keep  the  houses  free  of  spiders,  mosquitoes,  and  the  softer 
insects.  They  are  powerless,  however,  against  the  termites,  vul- 
garly known  as  “ white  ants  ” ( rayap , ani-ani ),  which  ravage  every- 
thing : timber,  woodwork  of  all  kinds,  books,  and  clothing.  One 
has  also  to  beware  of  the  attacks  of  ants  ( semut ),  spiders  ( laba-laba , 
kelo  monggok) ; centipedes  (Jav.  klabang,  Mai.  lilipan,  lipan ),  myria- 
pods whose  bite  is  venomous ; cockroaches  (Upas,  tjoro) ; “ flying 
ants,”  termites  in  the  winged  or  perfect  phase  (larongs),  which  leave 
their  retreats  in  the  evening  and  fill  the  air  with  prodigious  swarms, 
and  at  sunrise  strew  the  earth  with  their  bodies ; and  other 
creatures.  Before  putting  on  one’s  boot  or  shoe  it  is  always 
advisable  to  examine  the  interior. 


176 


JAVA 


as  well  as  spacious  rooms ; although  in  Batavia  and 
Surabaja,  under  the  influence  of  European  customs, 
some  very  fine  houses  are  now  being  built  with  upper 
stories. 

The  colonial  house  nearly  always  consists  of  a large 
central  chamber  or  hall,  which  also  serves  as  a dining- 
room when  many  guests  are  received.  An  inner  gallery, 
running  right  and  left,  opens  on  the  bedrooms ; some- 
times on  an  office  or  study  for  the  master  of  the  house, 
and  a boudoir  or  workroom,  or  both  in  one,  for  the 
mistress.  In  front  of  this  inner  gallery  is  a large  outer 
gallery  or  verandah,  supported  by  pillars,  which  is  open 
to  all  the  winds,  and  is  furnished  with  rocking-chairs, 
furniture  devoid  of  upholstery,  ornaments  and  bibelots, 
vases,  flowers,  arranged  in  the  best  possible  taste.  This 
large  verandah  serves  as  a drawing-room  or  reception- 
room  ; and  parallel  to  this,  at  the  back  of  the  house,  is 
another  verandah,  where  the  family  live  and  take  their 
meals  on  ordinary  occasions.  This  back  verandah  corre- 
sponds to  the  chambre  de  menage  of  the  French,  the 
stube  of  the  Germans,  the  dining-room  of  the  English, 
the  “parlour”  of  the  Americans. 

In  some  wealthy  houses  this  back  verandah  is  replaced 
or  supplemented  by  a pendoppo,  a room  open  on  all 
sides  ; covered  with  a separate  roof,  but  built  against 
the  back  of  the  main  building.  Formerly  timber  and 
bamboo  were  the  materials  chiefly  employed  in  house- 
building ; to-day  stone  is  more  common,  or  concrete 
( beton ),  or  even  sheet  or  corrugated  iron. 

The  roof  is  covered  with  tiles,  or  shingles  cut  to  the 
shape  of  slates  ; the  ceilings  of  hardwood  or  djati  (teak), 
or  sometimes  of  white  bamboo  matting  ; but  never  of 
stucco  or  plaster ; are  decorated  more  or  less,  according 
to  the  fortune  of  the  house-owner  ; the  walls  are  carefully 
whitened  or  painted  ; on  the  floor  the  carpet  is  replaced, 
with  great  advantage,  by  clean,  flexible  matting.  The 
kitchens,  stables,  coach-house,  larders  (or  gudangs),  and 
the  bathroom  (without  a bath,  but  containing  a piscina, 
and  a large  vessel  of  water  which  is  poured  over  the 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


177 


head,  and  refreshes  one  better  than  anything),  are  in 
separate  buildings,  standing  apart  from  the  house. 

Furniture  is  necessarily  simple.  Upholstered  furniture 
is  banished,  as  it  is  the  certain  refuge  and  prey  of  the 
swarming  insect-life ; draperies  are  reduced  to  the 
minimum,  since  as  little  air  must  be  intercepted  as  is 
possible ; the  bedrooms  are  provided  with  a bedstead 
of  wood  or  iron,  which  is  usually  provided  with  a 
wire  spring-mattress,  no  other  being  impervious  to 
insects.  The  bed  or  upper  mattress  is  of  kapok ; 1 there 
are  curtains  of  transparent  muslin,  and  always  a mos- 
quito-bar of  the  same  stuff  ; there  is  also  the  classic 
round  bolster  of  American  cloth — the  “ Dutch  wife  " — 
which  is  placed  between  the  legs,  in  order  to  diminish 
the  perspiration  ; there  is  finally  a sheet,  but  no 
coverings,' except  in  high  altitudes. 

The  furniture  of  the  dining-room  and  the  salon  is 
either  of  rattan,  bamboo,  or  hardwood,  either  worked 
or  bent.  The  large  bay-windows,  the  transparent 
curtains,  and  the  light,  flexible  mattings  of  split  bamboo 
or  palm-leaf,  are  the  most  prominent  features  of  the 
colonial  house,  which  is  the  best  possible  refuge  from 
the  tropical  heat ; a refuge  whereby  the  anaemic  system 
derives  a little  comfort,  while  the  eyes  are  rested  by  a 
harmonious  blending  of  Oriental  and  European  taste. 

Everything  required  to  furnish  and  decorate  the  house, 
all  necessary  clothing,  and  all,  in  short,  that  a European 
could  possibly  feel  the  need  of  in  Java,  may  be  bought 
in  the  island  at  a moderate  cost,  which  prevents  the 
necessity  of  taking  them  out  from  Holland,  at  the  risk 
of  their  proving  unsuitable,  and  possibly  at  great  incon- 
venience. At  Batavia  one  can  buy  all  that  is  needed 
for  a family  containing  two  children — all  the  necessary 
furniture,  excepting  glass,  crockery,  lamps,  &c.,  for  about 
£60.  A complete  installation  costs  £ ioo  to  ^120. 

It  is  unhappily  the  case  that  from  year  to  year  the 

1 A silky,  lustrous  down  which  forms  around  the  seed  of  the 
kapok,  or  false  cotton,  or  cotton-wool  tree  ( Eriodendron  an- 
fractuosum  D.C.) 


178 


JAVA 


colonial  house,  especially  in  the  cities,  is  tending  to 
resemble  more  and  more  closely,  as  regards  the  exterior, 
the  ordinary  Dutch  dwelling-house,  to  the  great  dis- 
advantage of  the  simplicity  of  colonial  life ; it  is  also 
gradually  losing  its  rustic  simplicity.  Planters  and 
officials  are  marrying,  far  more  frequently  than  of  old, 
young  women  who  possess,  if  not  considerable  wealth, 
at  least  considerable  social  position  and  refined  tastes. 
They  expect  to  find  in  the  Indies  everything  that  they 
would  consider  as  forming  a comfortable  and  enviable 
household  at  home.  This  explains  why  the  older  houses 
in  Batavia — and  notably  in  Surabaja,  that  city  of  pro- 
gress and  modernity — are  being  heightened  by  another 
story,  the  effect  of  which  is  not  always  happy.  In  such 
houses  the  inner  gallery  serves  only  as  a passage  ; the 
back  verandah  is  furnished  with  teak  furniture  french- 
polished  in  the  modern  style  : little  tables,  bibelots,  and 
gold-worked  embroidered  fabric  is  often  more  in  the 
way  than  in  good  taste.  Glass  doors  are  slowly  being 
replaced  by  light  curtains ; and  the  light  matting  is  dis- 
appearing from  the  marble  or  imitation  marble  floor  of  the 
salon,  which  is  covered  by  a drugget,  like  those  to  be  seen 
in  the  morning-room  of  the  provincial  middle  classes. 

Some  families,  and  not  the  least  important,  resist  this 
nonsensical  vanity,  and  the  perfect  simplicity  of  their 
interiors  is  relieved  only  by  the  reflections  from  a few 
fine  Japanese  or  Chinese  porcelains,  or  the  soft  glow  of 
gracefully  draped  sarongs;  and  perhaps,  on  a massive 
teak  sideboard,  the  mysterious  smile  of  some  precious 
I ndo- Javanese  statuette. 

The  Dutchman,  who  is  almost  as  great  a stickler  for 
etiquette  and  formalities  as  the  Englishman  the  moment 
he  officially  represents  his  country,  and  has  nothing  in 
common  with  the  democratic  ease  of  the  French  colonist 
in  Indo-China,  has  succeeded  in  attaining,  as  far  as 
every-day  life  is  concerned,  a modus  vivendi  full  of 
cordial  good-fellowship  and  agreeable  liberty,  which  has 
enabled  him,  in  spite  of  the  climate,  to  live  long  and 
happily  in  Java. 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


179 


He  profits  as  far  as  possible,  in  matters  of  clothing 
and  food,  by  the  instinct  and  experience  of  the  native. 

In  the  East  Indian  home  the  man  is  always  clothed  in 
pyjama 1 trousers  and  a tunic  of  white  cotton,  his 
feet  being  bare  in  heel-less  slippers  ; the  woman  is 
becomingly  clad  in  the  Javanese  sarong,  of  a fine, 
thin  cotton,  held  at  the  waist  by  a red  girdle  ; a wide 
embroidered  camisole  ( kabaja ),  and  microscopic  slippers 
which  complete  this  summary  toilet.  From  the  aesthetic 
point  of  view  the  effect  is  rather  disastrous  ; the  sarong, 
which  closely  moulds  the  round,  slight  figure  of  the 
little  women  of  Java,  takes  regrettable  liberties  with  the 
robust  build  and  the  often  considerable  height  of 
the  women  of  Holland  : but  the  costume  is  relatively 
so  cool  that  it  allows  the  mistress  of  the  house  to  go 
about  her  household  duties  without  feeling  the  heat  of 
the  climate  unduly.  Formerly  the  women  used  to  wear 
the  native  costume  in  the  streets,  and  when  visiting 
relations  or  intimate  friends,  and  while  shopping;  to-day 
they  wear  it  only  at  home  ; and  young  girls  and  new- 
comers often  refuse  to  adopt  it,  replacing  it  by  a loose 
peignoir  trimmed  with  lace.  Sarong  and  peignoir  dis- 
appear in  the  evening,  when  visitors  are  received  ; when 
folk  walk  or  drive  on  the  Koningsplein  at  Batavia, 
or  sally  forth  to  take  ices  at  the  celebrated  Grimm’s  of 
Surabaja : they  make  way  for  the  most  fashionable 
European  toilettes  ; for  the  torments  of  a more  or  less 
learned  coquetry,  which  must  certainly  cause  many  a 
sigh  in  those  who  submit  to  them  after  the  familiar 
sarong  or  the  loose  peignoir.  Formerly  the  smartest  of 
women  used  to  go  bare-headed  in  the  morning  and 
evening ; the  plumed,  feathered,  complicated  hat  of 
Europe  is  now  making  its  appearance,  and  before  long 
amateurs  of  the  latest  fashions  will  be  able  to  contem- 

1 Pyjamas  in  Java  signifies  simply  loose  trousers  held  up  by  a 
running-string  at  the  waist.  In  Indo-China  the  term  moresque  is 
employed  to  denote'  a sleeping-  or  resting-suit  consisting  of  wide 
trousers  and  a full  tunic  with  ample  sleeves,  made  of  plain  or 
printed  cotton. 


180 


JAVA 


plate  them  in  all  their  extravagant  absurdity  in  Batavia 
or  Saigon  as  well  as  in  London,  Paris,  or  The  Hague. 

In  their  ordinary  diet,  however,  the  Dutch  are  still 
following  the  example  of  the  natives  ; and  to  this  fact 
they  owe  a very  great  deal  of  the  success  with  which 
they  resist  the  climate.  Early  in  the  morning  the 
Dutchman  usually  partakes,  at  the  family  table,  of  an 
excellent  cup  of  coffee,  very  strong,  with  boiling  milk 
added ; at  nine  comes  a cold  breakfast,  with  tea,  and 
various  native  condiments  which  stimulate  the  appetite ; 
at  one  he  sits  down  before  the  chief  meal  of  the  day, 
the  rijsttafel  (rice  table),  so  called  from  the  principal 
dish,  an  enormous  mountain  of  steamed  rice,  accom- 
panied by  morsels  of  buffalo-beef,  butcher’s  beef,  game, 
fish,  krupukg  dendeng,1 2 3  duck’s  eggs  cooked,  salted,  and 
pickled ; mashed  potatoes,  scraps  of  fowl’s  liver 
swimming  in  coconut  butter  and  seasoned  with  pimento; 
yellowish-green  sauces,  strongly  spiced,  and  various 
peppers : in  a word,  a meal  of  so  many  different 
elements  and  often  of  such  unexpected  appearance  that 
the  newly-landed  European  is  at  first  repelled  ; but  the 
colonial  mixes  with  his  rice  all  or  any  of  these 
ingredients,  which  excite  his  jaded  palate,  and  thanks 
to  them  is  nourished  principally  upon  the  rice,  whose 
monotony  would  sicken  him  if  he  were  to  eat  it  alone. 
The  midday  meal  is  generally  crowned  by  a dessert  of 
the  finest  fruits  of  the  Indies ; bananas,  mangoes, 
mangustams  and  shaddocks,  which  are  sold  everywhere 
at  low  prices.  The  dourian,  greatly  prized  by  the 
natives,  is  never  admitted  to  European  tables  on  account 
of  its  fetid  odour  ; but  any  one  who  is  not  too  disgusted 
by  it  will  eat  the  fruit  in  private  and  at  a moderate 
distance  from  inhabited  places,  in  order  not  to  annoy 
people  by  the  horrible  stench. 3 At  four  o’clock  tea  is 
taken,  with  pastry  or  a few  hors  d’ceuvres ; at  eight,  a 

1 Squares  of  buffalo  derma  fried  in  oil. 

J Strips  of  meat  dried  in  the  sun  and  fried  in  oil ; biltong  (Boer). 

3 The  famous  Raffles  had  quite  a particular  detestation  for  the 
dourian,  according  to  the  Malay  writer,  Abdullah  ben  Abdelkader. 


COFFEE  PLANTATION,  JAVA,  WITH  BUNGALOW  AND  FACTORY. 


• MAKING  A GARDEN  IN  THE  VIRGIN  FOREST,  JAVA. 


To  face  p.  i8a. 


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final  cold  collation,  of  which  few  eat  very  plentifully, 
owing  to  the  repeated  snacks  and  meals  taken  during 
the  day. 

The  ordinary  drink  at  table  is  water  or  tea ; at  the 
beginning  of  a meal  the  men  take  a strong  dose  of  pahit 
(a  bitters),  which  is  as  bad  as  port  in  its  effects  on  the 
liver,  and  is  apt  to  produce  dysentery,  which  the  daily 
use  of  rice  prevents  or  alleviates. 

When  the  Dutch  colonist  entertains — which  he  does 
with  the  most  sumptuous  hospitality — the  dishes  and 
wines  are  European ; the  wines  of  the  best  vintages,  and 
the  dishes  perfectly  prepared. 

The  Dutch  colonist  is  not  obliged,  like  the  French 
colonist  in  Indo-China,  to  find  a Chinese  cook  ; 1 for  the 
Javanese  woman,  who  is  gentle,  intelligent,  attentive,  and 
assimilative,  very  quickly  learns  to  act  as  a cook,  a 
chamber-maid,  or  first-class  washerwoman,  as  she  is  by 
nature  the  most  affectionate  and  attentive  of  wet-nurses 
or  babus  (ayahs).  In  a house  containing  one  or  two 
children,  where  the  parents  receive  and  maintain  a 
certain  social  position,  seven  servants  are  required  : 
butler,  cook,  cook’s  help,  chamber-maids,  coachman, 
groom,  gardener,  “ boy-panka,”  2 babus  (ayahs),  &c.  In 
the  larger  cities  they  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  12  to  15 
florins  per  month,  and  expected  to  find  their  own  food.3 

1 In  Java  the  Chinese  dislike  taking  service  with  Europeans  : a 
Chinese  cook  or  boy  cannot  be  obtained  for  less  than  15  to  25 
florins  per  month. 

2 Punkah  coolie ; the  punkah  or  panka  being  a great  rectangular 
fan  suspended  from  the  ceiling,  which  is  swung  from  without  by 
means  of  a cord.  This  device,  known  to  the  Arabs  in  the  tenth 
century,  and  probably  earlier,  is  now  being  replaced  here  and  there 
by  electric  fans  and  ventilators  of  all  kinds. 

3 These  servants  cannot,  as  a rule,  do  anything  beyond  their  own 
special  duties.  Thus  besides  the  mandur  (major-domo),  the  kokki 
(cook),  the  babu  (chamber-maid,  nursemaid),  and  the  dja'it  (tailor), 
there  is  the  djongos  (boy,  valet  de  chambre ) who  is  indispensable,  the 
kusir  (coachman),  the  tukang  kuda  (groom),  the  tukang  lampu  (lamp- 
boy),  the  tukang  kebon  (gardener),  the  tukang  minotu  (washing-man), 
&c.  The  mandur  has  no  particular  duties,  but  is  regarded  as 
attached  to  the  service  of  his  master. 


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Very  faithful  and  much  attached  to  their  employers, 
and  especially  to  be  trusted  with  young  children  and  all 
that  concerns  them,  they  naturally  do  not  possess  all  the 
virtues.  The  colonist,  who  rings  for  his  boy  to  hand 
him  an  article  just  out  of  his  reach,  or  to  pick  up  his 
handkerchief,  will  readily  accuse  him  of  laziness  ; for- 
getting that  the  torrid  climate,  which  makes  him  so 
apathetic,  has  its  effect  upon  the  native  also ; that  his 
own  indolence,  his  habit  (quickly  acquired)  of  acting  like 
a little  potentate,  the  dimensions  of  his  spacious  dwelling, 
the  refinements  and  luxuries  of  his  life  in  a country  as 
yet  poorly  organised  from  that  point  of  view,  all  mean  a 
heavy  burden  upon  his  servants,  and  call  for  a positive 
genius  for  organisation  on  the  part  of  the  mistress  of  the 
house.  One  is  obliged,  however,  to  admit  a lack  of  thrift 
on  the  part  of  the  Javanese  “ boy  " who,  like  his  brothers 
in  Indo-China,  always  commences  the  day  by  begging 
“ Madame  " to  make  him  “ a little  advance.”  It  is  the 
proper  thing  to  grant  this  request,  while  stipulating  that 
he  shall  repay  these  sums  at  the  rate  of  2 or  3 florins  per 
month.  This  he  does  most  scrupulously,  but  as  he  is 
always  obtaining  fresh  loans  he  is  almost  always  in  debt, 
however  wisely  one  advises  him.  Very  sensible  of  good 
treatment,  the  Javanese  is  keenly  wounded  by  a coarse 
insult  or  by  bad  treatment.  Too  weak  to  rebel  openly, 
he  is  capable  of  revenging  himself  secretly  in  a very 
dangerous  manner  ; for  the  dysentery  and  the  intestinal 
disease  which  only  removal  from  Java  will  cure,  appears 
often  to  be  the  work  of  a vindictive  servant.1 

But  such  matters  as  this  are  the  exception ; an  excep- 
tion nearly  always  the  result  of  unpardonable  demands 
on  the  part  of  the  master.  The  colonists  complain  a 
great  deal  of  their  domestics,  because  they  only  too  often 
expect  from  them,  in  return  for  a minimum  of  considera- 

1 As  to  Dutch  habits  in  Java  (the  house,  its  choice  situation, 
arrangement,  and  furnishing  ; every-day  customs  ; servants  ; hygienic 
precautions  ; food  ; domestic  economy,  &c.),  see  the  book  by  Mme. 
J.  M.  T.  Catenius-Van  der  Meiden,  Ons  huis  in  Indie  (Our  House  in 
the  Indies).  Samarang,  1908,  8vo. 


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tion  and  justice  on  their  own  part,  twenty  times  the  zeal 
and  obedience  that  one  would  ever  dare  to  hope  for  in  a 
European  servant.  “ As  for  the  virtues  one  demands  in  a 
servant,"  says  Figaro  to  Almaviva,  “ does  your  Excellency 
know  many  masters  who  would  be  worthy  to  act  as 
valets?"  More  than  one  Javanese  mandur  might  make 
the  same  retort  to  his  blanda  (Dutch)  lord  and  master. 

The  Dutch  planter  is  not  only  hospitable — in  which 
the  French  planter  resembles  him  ; his  hospitality  is 
notable  for  a rare  cordiality,  delicacy,  and  generosity. 
To  ensure  the  welfare  and  the  happiness  of  his  guest 
is  a sacred  duty  as  well  as  a pleasure. 

His  hospitality  was  famous  for  its  ostentation  some 
twenty-five  or  thirty  years  ago,  when  the  Dutch  were  few 
in  Java.  Their  coffee  and  sugar  were  then  unrivalled  on 
the  European  market ; in  ten  or  fifteen  years  they  used 
to  amass  fortunes  of  many  millions  of  florins,  and 
delighted  in  sharing  their  prosperity  with  all  those  sur- 
rounding them  : by  means  of  sumptuous  feasts,  and  a 
house  open  to  all  comers. 

Those  golden  years  have  passed  or  are  passing  ; and 
the  Dutch  in  Java  often  lament  the  fact,  concluding  that 
they  are  far  poorer  now,  that  the  colony  is  no  longer 
bringing  them  in  any  considerable  degree  of  wealth. 
The  truth  of  the  matter  is  very  different.  What  is 
happening  in  all  Europe  is  happening  in  Java  : there  is 
more  money  than  ever  in  circulation,  but  it  is  divided 
amongst  a much  greater  number  of  owners.  There  is 
more  general  wealth,  but  fewer  large  private  fortunes. 

Although  the  coffees  of  Java  meet  with  a very  severe 
competition  with  those  of  Brazil,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
&c.  ; and  although  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  has 
caused  the  price  of  cane  sugar  to  fall  from  16  to  7J 
florins  per  picul,  while  the  establishment  of  a greater 
number  of  colonists,  who  compete  one  with  another,  has 
diminished  the  profits  of  each,  the  extensive  development 
of  agriculture  and  the  industries  which  arise  therefrom  has 
resulted  in  a great  increase  of  wealth  all  the  island  over. 

Formerly  the  Dutch  entertained  sumptuously,  but  with 


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simplicity  and  cordiality ; the  mistress  of  the  house  was 
able  to  entertain  all  the  more  in  that  she  used  not,  in  the 
semi-intimacy  of  such  receptions,  to  put  away  her  com- 
fortable sarong-kabaya ; to-day  there  is  more  ceremony, 
and  also  more  boredom  ; since  there  is  an  inevitable 
tendency  abroad  to  remain  at  home,  and  not  to 
torment  oneself  in  the  tropical  heat  with  the  corset  or 
frock-coat  in  order  to  exchange  a few  stale  remarks  with 
people  who  are  semi-strangers.  As  people  are  forced  to 
spend  less,  they  are  less  inclined  to  make  sacrifices  to  the 
mundane  existence  save  within  calculated  limits  of  time 
and  expense ; for  which  reason  social  life  is  more 
lethargic,  and  less  showy  than  of  old. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  social  life  of  the  East 
Indies  is  parsimonious  or  gloomy ; it  is  far  from  being 
that.  One  might  rather,  indeed,  reproach  the  Javanese 
Dutch  for  their  prodigality,  as  one  might  the  majority 
of  colonists,  and  their  tendency  to  accept  salaries,  profits, 
or  dividends,  as  the  easily  won  profits  of  an  intangible 
capital : so  that  after  leading  a full  and  careless  life  they 
are  often  scarcely  richer  than  when  they  commenced,  or 
at  least  far  poorer  than  they  hoped ; but  they  no  longer 
receive  except  on  certain  days  and  at  fixed  hours ; one  ball 
a year  is  given  instead  of  two ; and  individual  entertain- 
ments are  rapidly  giving  way  to  collective  entertainments, 
which  are  more  impersonal  and  more  banal,  given  by 
the  societies  or  clubs  to  which  every  one  of  position 
belongs.  In  every  city  there  are  clubs  and  associations 
of  every  kind ; lecture  societies,  musical  and  choral 
societies,  ladies’  clubs,  tennis  clubs,  and  rinking  clubs ; 
and  the  Europeans  not  only  patronise  the  theatre 
(comedy  and  light  opera  being  the  favourites)  but  also 
give  amateur  dramatic  performances  themselves.  The 
Locomotif  of  Samarang,  the  Sonrabaiasch  Handelsblad, 
and  the  Java-Bode  of  Batavia  always  contain  in  a 
prominent  position  reports  of  successful  and  crowded 
performances  of  some  lyrical  or  comedy  company  from 
Europe. 

The  colonists,  in  short,  amuse  themselves,  or  try  to  do 


EUROPEANS  IN  JAVA 


185 


so,  as  well  as  they  can,  in  order  to  vary  the  inevitable 
monotony  of  life  in  an  overpowering  climate,  and 
because  such  distractions  are  regarded,  from  the  hygienic 
point  of  view,  as  the  best  preventive  of  neurasthenia  and 
the  unavoidable  moral  depression  borne  of  a torrid 
atmosphere. 

V. 

Putting  aside  the  rigours  of  the  climate,  and  the 
division  of  the  large  fortunes  of  a former  time  into 
smaller,  the  real  charm  of  life  in  Java  is  lessened,  as 
in  so  many  colonies,  by  a lack  of  stability,  a social 
impermanence,  which  was  far  less  obvious  forty  years 
ago.  Formerly  there  were  fewer  colonists,  but  they  lived 
and  died  often  without  a thought  of  returning  to  their 
native  country.  A definite  decision  upon  this  point  gave 
existence  a greater  serenity  ; the  organisation  of  life 
seemed  more  stable,  more  secure.  To-day  there  are 
colonists  in  plenty  ; but  although  the  climate  of  Java  is 
far  more  supportable  than  that  of  India  or  Indo-China. 
both  planters  and  officials  dwell  in  Java  only  in  a 
transitory  fashion,  while  waiting  for  the  pension  or  the 
fortune  which  will  allow  them  to  return  to  Europe. 

In  the  long  run  they  become  a little  weary  of  the  full, 
easy  existence ; perhaps  a little  purposeless  ; although 
they  regret  it  bitterly  as  soon  as  they  return  to  the  con- 
ventional, parsimonious,  over-strenuous  life  of  Europe. 
They  submit,  with  increasing  reluctance,  to  the  necessity 
of  parting  with  their  children  while  the  latter  are  still 
quite  young,  so  that  they  may  be  educated  in  the  mother- 
country,  and  grow  up  to  be  useful  men  and  good  Dutch- 
men. Later  on  they  fear  for  these  children  the  maladies 
inevitable  to  the  climate  ; maladies  which  they  them- 
selves have  not  escaped  ; the  more  so  because  their  off- 
spring have  rarely  the  stamina  of  their  parents.  For 
although  it  is  quite  true  that  Java  is  a country  in  which 
the  European  can  acclimatise  himself,  and  can  live  very 
comfortably,  he  cannot  reproduce  his  race  there  any 
better  than  in  other  tropical  countries. 


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Despite  many  arguments  for  and  against  the  possibility, 
the  union  between  Holland  and  Java  seems  destined  to 
remain  sterile,  or  to  produce  none  but  children  unable 
to  resist  the  climate,  who  often  die  during  the  first  few 
years  after  birth.  At  first  sight  the  remedy  seemed  to 
consist  in  going  to  Europe  in  search  of  a fine,  courageous, 
vigorous  specimen  of  womanhood  to  continue  or  give 
fresh  life  to  one's  line  ; the  thing  is  easy  to-day,  for 
marriage  in  the  colonies  is  nowadays  getting  to  be 
regarded,  even  for  girls  of  the  best  middle-class  families, 
as  a good  settlement  in  life,  and  a species  of  heroism 
more  tempting  than  dangerous. 

So  once  again  fine  children  are  seen  in  plenty ; but 
the  mother,  who  has  known  all  the  luxuries  of  life  in  her 
native  country,  is  so  overcome  by  home-sickness  when 
the  time  comes  to  send  her  beloved  little  flock  overseas 
that  it  is  not  uncommon  for  the  whole  family  to  return. 
There  is  thus  a constant  going  and  coming  between  the 
mother-country  and  the  colony  ; the  latter  consumes  the 
energies  of  the  former,  and  the  former  consumes  the 
money  which  those  energies  earn  as  payment. 

Is  there  danger  here  for  Holland  or  for  Java  ? Less, 
perhaps,  than  appears,  if  the  new-comers  will  only  benefit 
by  the  experience  and  the  efforts  of  those  who  are 
leaving. 

VI. 

Lastly,  there  is  perhaps  one  efficient  remedy  ; a very 
radical  remedy,  it  is  true,  but  one  well  known  to  the 
pioneers  of  the  Dutch  power  in  Java  : I mean  the  cross- 
ing of  races.  The  question,  I need  hardly  say,  has 
arisen  in  Java  as  in  all  colonies  ; and  although  half- 
breeds  are  more  numerous  in  Java  than  in  British  India, 
and  are  not  the  object  of  the  same  biting  contempt  as  in 
English  society — a contempt  which  elsewhere  tends  to 
become  modified  when  fortune  comes  to  hide  the  ming- 
ling of  races — it  would  be  an  exaggeration  to  say  that 
they  are  looked  upon  with  favour.  Holland  looks  upon 
them  sourly,  and  the  little  cliques  of  the  “fashionable 


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187 


Dutch  world”  make  a practice,  where  colonists  from 
Java  return  to  their  native  land,  of  investigating  their 
pedigrees,  in  order  to  assure  themselves  that  no  brown 
blood  contaminates  their  veins. 

The  half-breeds  are  accused  in  Java,  as  everywhere,  of 
having  more  of  the  assimilative  faculty  than  of  actual 
intelligence,  and  also  of  having  inherited  the  vices  of 
both  races.  It  would  nearly  always  be  more  just,  in 
making  this  latter  complaint,  to  say  that  they  nearly 
always  combine  the  vices  of  two  individuals ; for  this 
mingling  of  blood  is  too  often  the  result  of  a brutal 
temperament  which  refuses  to  be  guided  by  anything 
except  its  own  desires  ; and  the  production  of  such  half- 
breeds  is  a kind  of  devolution,  an  evolution  in  a down- 
ward direction,  such  as  that  which  occurs  when  a 
wealthy  and  sensual  Oriental  marries  the  first  European 
girl  he  meets. 

But  it  has  often  happened,  in  the  Dutch  Indies  as 
elsewhere,  that  men  of  high  intelligence  and  calm  reason- 
ing powers,  having  come  to  a full  knowledge  of  the 
refined  and  gentle  races  among  which  they  lived,  have 
entered  into  closer  relations  with  them  by  a marriage  of 
which  the  sons  have  done  the  greatest  honour  to  both 
peoples  who  were  thus  reincarnated  in  them.  To  the 
great  name  of  the  ethnologist  Wilken,  Holland  could 
to-day  add  several  which  have  helped  to  make  her 
better  known  to  the  outer  world ; names  of  men  whose 
subtle  penetration  and  high  intelligence  perhaps  owe 
more  than  is  supposed  to  a Javanese  or  Malay  mother 
or  grandmother. 

The  greatest  danger  to  be  feared  from  the  crossings  of 
races  is  that  the  individual  may  add  to  his  parent’s  vices 
a bad  education,  or  none  at  all.  The  father,  who  very 
often  wishes  to  break  with  the  mother,  and  has  no  idea 
of  encumbering  himself  with  a child,  may  wish  to  be 
rid  of  both  together,  without  inquiring  what  becomes  of 
them  ; they  relapse  into  poverty — that  evil  counsellor 
and  worse  schoolmistress  ; and  being  thus  abandoned  to 
the  native  race,  they  often  bring  to  it  nothing  but 


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a hatred  of  the  injustice  which  they  have  suffered 
from. 

The  Dutch  State  has  so  well  understood  that  herein 
lies  a source  of  weakness  and  a loss  of  moral  authority 
on  the  part  of  the  whites  that  no  sooner  is  a half- 
breed  child  recognised  by  his  father  than  it  counts  him, 
with  true  liberalism,  as  a pure-blooded  Dutchman,  and 
enregisters  and  educates  him  as  such,  letting  no  difference 
appear  between  him  and  his  more  fortunate  brothers ; 
and  it  then  seeks  to  marry  him  to  the  daughter  of  a 
colonist,  or  an  official,  so  as  to  give  back  to  the  white 
race  what  has  been  taken  from  it,  and  to  fortify  it  by  the 
admixture  of  a new  stock. 

The  only  great  danger  that  may  arise  from  ethnic 
cross-breeds  lies  in  the  fact  that  miscegenation  is  apt  to 
result  in  marriages  founded  not  on  too  great  an  in- 
equality, but  on  too  great  a mental  difference  between 
the  two  parties.  Again,  the  continual  marriage  of 
Dutchmen  with  natives  would  sever  one  of  the  strongest 
bonds  which  ties  the  European  to  his  native  land  ; 
would  create  a race  of  half-breeds  so  numerous  that 
they  would  prefer  to  live  apart,  and  after  having  deprived 
Holland  of  her  boldest  sons  would  finally  deprive  her 
of  her  colony.1  At  the  present  moment  this  solution 
would  hardly  appear  desirable  either  for  Java  or  for 
Holland,  or  any  other  colonial  power  ; and  the  moral 
and  equitable  practice  of  mixed  marriages  is  therefore 
not  likely  to  prove  more  than  a very  ineffectual  remedy 
for  a low  birth-rate,  or  for  the  excessive  mortality  which 
afflicts  the  European  family  under  the  tropics. 

1 This  is  exactly  what  occurred  in  Brazil.  Some  of  the  great 
feudal  nobles,  after  their  power  was  broken,  together  with  many 
landless  gentlemen  and  officers,  and  thousands  of  men-at-arms, 
took  women  of  fierce  and  warlike  tribes  of  Indians.  Natural 
selection,  based  on  colour-preference,  has,  in  the  case  of  the  aristo- 
cracy, produced  a virile  and  energetic  white  race. — [Trans.] 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA 

I.  The  important  position  of  the  European  officials  in  Java. — Their 
restricted  numbers  are  due  to  the  form  of  government  which 
obtains  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  : the  Dutch  govern  the  native 
through  his  own  chiefs. — II.  Relations  between  the  native  and 
European  administrations. — III.  The  hierarchy,  privileges,  and 
importance  of  the  European  official. — IV.  Complaints  against 
the  officials  made  by  colonists  and  natives. 


I. 

If  the  colonists,  the  producers  of  wealth,  are  one  of  the 
essential  factors  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Dutch  Indies, 
the  officials  who  ensure  the  material  order  without  which 
wealth  could  not  be  created  are,  one  might  say,  the 
regulators  of  wealth  ; regulators  in  many  ways  and  in 
variable  degrees,  but  whose  number  is  more  limited  than 
one  can  well  conceive  if  compared  with  the  total  of  the 
colonial  bureaucracy  of  France,  or  even  with  that  of 
England  ; rather  less  than  four  hundred  of  them  suffi- 
cing to  govern  these  immense  possessions. 

This  result  is  both  the  work  of  circumstances  and  of 
the  political  genius  of  Holland.  When  the  Dutch  came 
to  the  Indies,  they  were  too  weak  to  conquer,  maintain, 
and  overthrow  by  force  of  arms,  and  were  desirous 
above  all  of  practical  results,  to  be  obtained  at  the  least 
possible  expense.  So  soon  as  they  had  established  their 
commercial  domination,  and  obtained  from  the  chiefs, 
whether  by  or  against  their  will,  a determined  royalty  or 
tribute  in  the  produce  of  the  country,  to  the  exclusion  of 
all  other  Europeans,  they  were  already  satisfied,  without 

189 


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JAVA 


troubling  themselves  as  to  the  manner  in  which  these 
chiefs  governed  the  natives.  By  miracles  of  concrete 
prudence  and  delicate  diplomacy  they  succeeded  in 
building  up,  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  a gigantic  empire 
of  which  they  could  barely,  in  case  of  revolt,  have 
occupied  by  force  the  twentieth  part.  Their  system 
of  non-interference  in  the  government  of  the  natives 
appeared  to  safeguard  them  for  ever  against  any  such 
attempt.  By  the  logic  of  events,  as  soon  as  the  enor- 
mous colonial  empire  of  the  Netherlands  was  brought 
back  by  the  conquests  of  other  rivals,  among  others  the 
English,  to  proportions  more  normal  in  their  very 
splendour,  their  domination  over  the  Archipelago,  which 
had  been  entirely  commercial  and  indirect,  began  to 
grow  more  of  a political  and  effective  control.  In  Java 
particularly,  where  the  Company  had  established  its 
warehouses  and  its  offices,  the  authority  of  its  employees 
became  more  sensible  and  less  discreet ; to  the  policy  of 
their  nation  they  added  their  own,  which  consisted  in 
gaining  a hold  upon  the  native  in  order  to  bring  greater 
pressure  to  bear  upon  him.  But  the  better  officials 
began  to  foresee  that  the  Javanese,  shorn  by  his 
chiefs  for  the  benefit  of  the  European,  whom  he  hardly 
knew,  and  for  their  own  as  well,  and  governed  with  a 
despotism  and  a greed  that  were  often  revolting,  would 
finally  reject  the  double  burden.  Truly  enough,  when  the 
Company  failed  rebellion  broke  loose  upon  every  hand. 

The  Crown,  in  replacing  the  Company,  governed  pru- 
dently enough  at  the  outset ; remaining,  as  the  Company 
had  remained,  behind  the  chiefs  and  the  established 
usages ; but  well  aware  that  these  chiefs,  if  they  were 
not  very  closely  supervised,  would  compromise  its  power. 

This  insensible  and  stealthy  transformation  of  the 
Government  into  an  actual  protectorate  was  above  all 
the  work  of  Daendels  and  of  Raffles.  Until  their  time 
the  native  chiefs  and  princes  had  very  vaguely  been 
the  partners,  and  some  the  very  independent  friends 
of  the  Dutch  ; but  under  them  they  became  honoured 
officials,  yet  subordinate  to  the  power  of  Europe. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  191 


Daendels,  sword  in  hand,  undertook  to  chastise  those 
who  resisted,  and  to  reduce  the  two  most  powerful 
princes,  those  of  Surakarta  and  Djokjakarta,  to  a strict 
vassalage.  The  various  regents,  the  inheritors  of  appan- 
ages, titles,  wealth,  prerogatives,  and  secular  abuses,  who, 
their  royalties  in  kind  or  money  once  paid  to  Holland, 
considered  themselves  fully  as  independent  as  these  two 
sovereigns,  learned  from  the  “ Dutch  Napoleon " that 
they  held  their  positions  not  by  heredity,  but  by  royal 
appointment ; that  they  were  only  imposing  officials,  and 
therefore  removable  if  they  administered  badly.  This 
fundamental  principle  of  birth  once  being  granted,  Daen- 
dels forced  them  to  agree  that  henceforth  they  should  be 
always  appointed  by  Holland,  but  with  regard  to  the 
rights  of  birth,  and  also  the  rights  of  merit,  which 
latter  might  outweigh  the  former  ; that  they  should  all 
take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  King  at  the  hands  of  his 
representative,  the  Governor-General,  and  that  they 
must  administer  the  land  according  to  the  royal  instruc- 
tions, and  the  advice  of  the  Resident,  or  European 
official,  who  would  be  placed  beside  each  of  them  as  the 
means  of  control.  Daendels  also  endeavoured  to  soften 
the  crudity  of  an  innovation  so  disastrous  to  the  dignity 
of  the  chiefs  by  covering  them  with  honours  ; by  regu- 
lating very  minutely  (by  the  decree  of  1808)  their  hono- 
rific prerogatives,  and  questions  of  precedence  ; and  by 
pretending,  with  a masterly  moderation,  that  he  wished 
to  make  them  the  associates  of  his  power.  In  the  very 
year  when  he  struck  this  terrible  blow,  he  united  the 
greater  part  of  Java  in  a huge  conference,  at  which  he 
discussed  with  them  the  needs  of  the  country. 

Raffles,  for  England,  continued  the  policy  of  Daendels  ; 
he  strengthened  the  measures  against  the  princes  of  the 
Vorstenlanden,  which  were  always  disturbed,  and  at  every 
turn  he  allowed  to  be  seen  his  fixed  intention  of  depriving 
the  regents  of  all  political  power,  and  of  allowing  them 
to  retain,  together  with  their  show  of  prestige,  only  the 
control  of  the  local  police,  under  strict  European  super- 
vision. If  they  were  incompetent  or  unworthy,  he  had 


192 


JAVA 


no  other  means  to  ensure  the  security  of  Europeans,  a 
little  justice  for  the  natives,  and  peace  throughout  the 
Indies.  To  the  firmness  of  which  he  had  already  given 
proof  he  added  a scrupulous  respect  for  the  questions 
of  precedence  so  dear  to  the  Javanese.  The  native  chiefs 
did  not  dare  to  manifest  their  discontent. 

But  they  were  nevertheless  terribly  chagrined  by  so 
complete  a downfall ; when  the  Dutch  resumed  possession 
of  their  colonies  in  1818  there  was  so  much  discontent 
abroad  that  the  Dutch  Government,  which  had  firmly 
decided  to  benefit  by  the  coup  d’etat  which  had  been 
effected  under  the  French  and  English  domination,  and 
was  also  greatly  enlightened  as  to  the  moral  and  political 
value  of  the  regents,  was  inclined  to  reproach  them 
personally  for  having  abandoned  the  cause  of  Holland 
during  the  last  twenty  years  with  such  absolute  content ; 
yet  it  wished  to  pacify  them.  In  1820  their  position  was 
definitely  determined  by  law  : they  remained  officials, 
appointed,  paid,  and  at  need  dismissed  by  the  King,  and 
were  obliged  to  take  the  advice  and  follow  the  counsels 
of  the  Dutch  Residents ; but  they  remained  the  highest 
personages  in  the  native  world,  and  the  intermediaries 
through  whom  Holland  communicated  with  that  world  ; 
moreover,  they  were  granted  titles  and  large  pensions  in 
order  to  repair  their  prestige. 

This  policy  had  good  results,  for  in  1825,  at  the  time  of 
the  war  with  Java,  which  held  in  suspense  the  fate  of  the 
Dutch  domination,  the  regents  did  not  stir  in  aid  of  the 
Dipo  Negoro. 

Moreover,  the  Dutch  Government,  in  order  to  accustom 
the  regents  to  their  new  position,  had  acted  with  a 
deliberation  born  of  reflection,  and  a prudent  spirit  of 
conciliation,  which  it  has  always  found  successful ; being 
less  anxious  to  decree  a sudden  and  absurd  uniformity 
than  to  obtain  it  in  the  long  run.  The  regents  were  first 
appointed  in  the  more  submissive  provinces  ; and  the 
Government  in  almost  every  case  took  such  care  to 
respect  the  principles  of  high  birth  and  heredity  that 
it  did  not  really  seem  that  there  had  been  any  break 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  193 


with  the  past.  Only  a few  individual  cases  betrayed  the 
revolution  accomplished.  Then  came  the  turn  of  other 
provinces ; the  regents  of  the  Preangers,  who  were 
wealthy,  influential,  and  very  independent,  were  subjected 
to  the  general  rule  only  after  the  year  1870,  and  with  their 
own  consent,  which  was  obtained  by  skilful  negotiations. 

The  pensions  also  followed  the  fluctuations  of  a skilful 
and  entirely  opportunist  policy.  They  were  large  at  the 
outset ; then  considerably  smaller.  They  were  larger  in 
the  case  of  those  from  whom  the  Government  had  much 
to  fear  or  to  hope  ; small  in  the  case  of  regents  who 
were  not  men  of  action.  The  regents  of  the  Preangers 
received  at  the  outset  some  £3,600  a year,  or  3,600  florins 
per  month  ; a sum  which,  added  to  a handsome  bonus 
during  the  period  of  forced  cultivation,  often  meant  an 
assured  revenue  of  £8,000  to  .£10,000  a year,  which  was 
enough  to  console  them  for  a good  many  things. 
During  the  second  generation  the  pensions  were  reduced  ; 
to-day  the  regents  do  not  draw  more  than  1,000  or  1,200 
florins  per  month,  or  about  .£1,000  to  £1,200  per  annum, 
and  the  bonus  is  reduced  to  £320  or  £400.  Only  one 
regent  is  still  drawing  £3,600 ; the  regent  of  Tjiand- 
jur,1  who  is  a proud  and  intelligent  individual  of 
great  influence. 

Enviable  distinctions  have  also  been  established  among 
the  regents  by  means  of  various  titles  which  have  been 
conferred  upon  them,  and  which  vary  with  their  merits. 
The  most  modest  regents  are  Raden  Tumenggung  ; next 
in  rank  comes  the  title  of  Raden  Adipati  ; finally 
Pangeran  or  Prince — a title  which  the  Dutch  have  only 
conferred  once  in  twenty  years,  for  exceptional  services, 
and  which  carries  with  it  a very  great  prestige.  At  the 
outset  the  regents,  from  the  heights  of  their  hereditary 
titles,  affected  a certain  disdain  for  this  innovation,  but 
to-day  they  are  highly  prized.2 

1 Or  Tandyur. 

* A list  of  the  numerous  native  titles  and  their  meaning  will  be 
found  in  L.  W.  C.  Van  den  Berg’s  De  inlandsche  rangen  en  titels  op 
Java  en  Madoera,  2nd  ed.  (The  Hague,  1902,  large  8vo). 

H 


194 


JAVA 


Finally,  having  bridled  the  regents  with  the  bridles  of 
money  and  vanity,  the  Dutch  still  hold  them  by  fear. 
The  son  of  a regent,  if  he  be  incapable  or  evilly  disposed, 
is  deliberately  removed  from  the  succession,  and  may  be 
replaced  either  by  a brother  or  a close  relation,  which 
flatters  the  wholly  aristocratic  prejudices  of  Javanese, 
or — and  this  upsets  them  not  a little — by  a petty  noble  or 
a plebeian,  who  has  won  his  spurs  during  his  career,  has 
proved  himself,  and  by  merit  alone  is  sometimes  raised 
from  the  rank  of  mantri  to  that  of  regent.  The  mantri 
is  more  feared  than  any  ; and  the  appointment  of  one 
seems  so  scandalous  to  the  regents  that  the  dread  of  it 
incites  them  to  prove  themselves  possessed  of  a certain 
amount  of  administrative  zeal. 


II. 

To-day  all  Java  is  ruled  by  a double  system  of  adminis- 
tration— European  and  native — the  two  being  juxtaposed, 
or  one  might  say  superimposed.  Every  province  or  Resi- 
dency has,  at  its  head,  a regent,  who  governs  alone  in 
the  eyes  of  the  natives,  with  whom  he  alone  has  direct 
relations,  according  to  their  religious  or  political  customs 
— their  adat.  This  regent  cuts  a great  figure  ; he  holds 
a kind  of  court,  boasts  of  a golden  parasol,  and  presides 
at  assemblies  ; but  beside  him  is  always  the  European 
Resident,  whose  part  should  be  solely  that  of  counsellor, 
and  who,  by  an  ingenious  fiction,  unobtrusively  holds 
the  actual  power. 

The  Resident  is,  in  short,  the  “elder  brother”  of  the 
regent,  which  allows  him  to  enjoy  the  same  outward 
consideration,  always  to  take  the  right  hand  of  the  regent 
at  all  ceremonies,  and,  on  account  of  the  hierarchic  order 
of  the  Javanese  family,  to  give  his  counsel  the  force  of 
an  order  in  cases  of  disagreement  with  the  “younger 
brother.”  Wherever  the  Dutch  policy  is  fully  applied 
the  Resident  treats  the  regent  with  brotherly  regard,  and 
endeavours  to  compensate  him  for  any  suppression  of 
his  individual  wishes  by  means  of  honorific  advantages. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  195 


The  province  can  do  nothing  without  the  Resident,  who 
is,  so  to  speak,  the  veiled  monarch,  whose  activity  over- 
flows into  every  department : politics,  justice,  agriculture, 
education,  &c.,  are  all  equally  his  business  ; but  everything 
is  carried  out  through  the  agency  of  the  regent. 

Subject  to  the  Resident  in  the  various  divisions  of  the 
province  are  Assistant  Residents,  who  work  in  conjunction 
with  the  other  regents.  The  latter  should  by  rights  take 
precedence  over  the  Assistant  Residents,  but  in  reality  the 
latter  play  the  same  part  and  assume  the  same  position 
as  the  Residents,  and  in  his  province  each  Assistant  has 
the  same  extensive  powers  as  the  Resident,  and  need  not 
refer  to  the  latter. 

Below  the  Residencies  and  Assistant  Residencies  in 
importance  are  the  districts ; each  district  capital  con- 
taining a native  wedono,  or  a sort  of  prefect,  who  is  under 
the  supervision  of  a Dutch  “ comptroller.”  The  various 
portions  of  the  district  are  governed  by  assistant  wedonos 
of  the  first  or  second  class,  who  are  under  the  eye  of 
probationary  comptrollers.  Every  native  chief,  of  what- 
ever degree,  is  aided  in  his  task  by  a mantri  \ a pro- 
bationary native  official,  who  generally  comes  of  the 
nobility,  and  is  often  the  younger  son  of  a regent,  and  is 
in  this  manner  broken  in  to  the  conduct  of  business  and 
serves  an  apprenticeship  to  his  career.  The  mantri  lives 
in  the  house  of  the  chief,  must  obey  his  orders  implicitly, 
and  is  usually  destined  to  some  special  service — irrigation, 
coffee,  opium,  the  police,  teaching,  &c. 

At  the  base  of  the  system  is  the  lura  (Dutch  spelling 
loerah),  the  mayor  or  chief  or  headman  of  the  kampong 
or  dessa  ; the  only  official  who  is  elected  by  those  under 
his  administration.  His  appointment,  however,  can  be 
annulled  by  the  European  comptroller  if  he  is  incapable, 
an  opium-smoker,  or  subject  to  any  serious  infirmity 
which  is  likely  to  diminish  his  reputation  or  his  activity. 

At  the  summit  of  the  pyramid  is  the  Governor-General 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
Sovereign,  and  is  himself  almost  a king  in  his  own 
domain,  so  great  are  his  discretionary  powers.  He  is 


196 


JAVA 


obliged  to  apply  the  law  voted  by  the  Dutch  Chambers 
affecting  the  colony,  as  well  as  royal  decrees,  but  he  may 
at  need  amend,  complete,  or  hold  them  back  by  the 
promulgation  of  orders.  He  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  the  naval  forces ; supreme  comptroller,  in 
the  last  resort,  of  every  branch  of  the  administration  ; he 
declares  war  or  makes  peace  with  native  princes  ; has  the 
rights  of  pardon  and  amnesty ; appoints  candidates  to 
all  civil  or  military  employments,  whether  European  or 
native  ; signs  foreigners’  permits  or  passports,  or  decrees 
of  expulsion  from  the  island  ; and  for  the  last  forty 
years  has  undertaken  to  protect,  develop,  and  slowly  to 
emancipate  the  native  masses.  This  omnipotent  per- 
sonage, who  unites  in  his  own  person  the  executive  and 
(in  certain  cases)  the  legislative  power,  is  limited  in  the 
exercise  of  his  powers  only  by  the  Council  of  the  Indies, 
except  that  the  Sovereign  has  the  power  to  call  upon  him 
to  retire,  and  the  Chambers  can  impeach  him  if  his  rule 
appear  unsatisfactory. 

The  Council  of  the  Indies  ( Raad  van  N ederlandsch- 
Indie),  composed  of  a vice-president  and  four  members, 
is,  after  the  Governor-General,  and  in  conjunction  with 
him,  the  highest  expression  of  the  European  power  in 
the  colony.  Although  in  certain  cases  prescribed  by  the 
law  the  Governor  is  obliged  to  follow  the  advice  of  the 
Council,  the  latter  has  in  general  only  a consultative 
power ; the  Governor,  who  is  solely  responsible  to  the 
Sovereign  and  the  Chambers,  may  dispense  with  its  advice. 

The  Governor-General  has  under  his  authority  five 
directors,  or  ministers  in  a small  way,  entrusted  respec- 
tively with  the  departments  of  Justice,  Finances,  Public 
Works,  the  Marine,  and  the  Army.  The  meeting  of  these 
directors  in  Council  assists  him  to  deal  with  the  various 
affairs  in  each  department.  It  often  happens  that  one 
of  these  directors  is  united  by  close  family  ties  to  the 
Governor-General,  which  sometimes  gives  rise  to  com- 
plaints of  nepotism ; but  the  selections  are  nearly 
always  so  happy  as  to  be  justified  by  the  merits  of  the 
director  selected.  Beneath  the  Governor  and  his  Secre- 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  197 


tariat-General,  on  whom  their  future  depends,  are  the 
active  officials  of  the  system  : the  Residents,  Assistant 
Residents,  with  their  secretary-comptrollers  and  pro- 
bationary comptrollers,  an  official  whose  equivalent  we 
should  seek  in  vain  elsewhere — the  “adviser”  or  coun- 
sellor for  native  affairs  ( Adviseur  voor  Inlandschc  Zaken),1 
and  philological  and  archaeological  officials,  of  whom  we 
shall  speak  further  on. 

After  its  long  period  of  sometimes  necessary  inertia, 
the  Dutch  Government  began  to  realise  that  three-fourths 
of  the  revolts  which  broke  out  among  the  natives  had 
their  source  less  in  regrettable  examples  of  injustice  than 
in  instances  of  tactlessness  and  indifference  on  the  part 
of  Europeans  who  were  absolutely  ignorant  of  the  beliefs, 
traditions,  and  legitimate  susceptibilities  of  the  natives. 
The  most  costly  and  bloody  of  these  misunderstandings 
was  the  rebellion  of  Dipo  Negoro,  who,  it  seems,  was 
unendurably  exasperated  by  the  insulting  behaviour  of  an 
incompetent  Resident,  whence  followed  the  Javanese  War. 

The  State  also  began  to  realise  the  value  of  a know- 
ledge of  native  idioms  to  its  officials,  and  became  aware 
of  the  gratuitous  labours  of  those  who  had  studied 
them ; such  as  the  long  research  of  Kern,  in  Sanscrit 
and  the  comparative  philology  of  the  languages  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  ; of  Roorda  van  Eysinga,  Grashuis, 
J.  Pijnappel,  Von  Dewal,  H.  Neubronner  van  der  Tunk 
in  Malay ; of  Cornets  de  Groot,  J.  F.  C.  Gericke, 
Roorda,  Vreede,  Poensen,  in  Javanese ; of  Matthes  in 
Macassar  and  Bugi  ; and  of  many  more.  In  1878, 
accordingly,  it  appointed  officials  to  study  the  languages 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Archipelago,2  selected  from 
among  the  doctors  in  the  philosophy  and  letters  of  the 
East  Indian  Archipelago, 3 who  had  obtained  their  degrees 

■ There  is  also  a counsellor  for  Arab  affairs  (. Adviseur  voor 
Arabische  Zaken),  To-day  the  honorary  holder  of  the  post  is  an 
Arab,  Seyvid  Ousman  bin  Abdullah  bin  Akiel  bin  Yakya  Alawi. 

a Ambtenaren  voor  de  broefening  der  Indische  talen. 

3 Doctoren  in  de  taal-en  letterkunde  van  den  Oost-Indischen 
archipel. 


198 


JAVA 


at  the  University  of  Leyden.  It  assigned  to  each,  with 
an  honorific  title  and  excellent  pay — from  ^300  to  .£1,000 
a year  with  an  annual  increase  of  .£48  for  beginners — a 
definite  section  of  the  territory  of  the  East  Indies,  with 
instructions  to  gain  a perfect  knowledge  of  its  language, 
institutions,  manners  and  customs ; to  compile  a dic- 
tionary of  the  language,  write  its  history  and  make  known 
its  beliefs  and  aspirations.  They  were  given  seven  years 
of  profound  and  peaceful  study  (but  could  obtain  an 
extension  of  time)  in  which  to  produce  a work  from 
which  all  would  benefit.1  To  this  foundation,  so  admirable 
in  its  intelligent  utilitarianism,  we  owe  a large  number  of 
manuals  or  scientific  works,  which  have  made  the  vast 
Netherlands  Indies  a country  known  to  its  governors  as 
few  are  known.  The  general  scope  and  the  reputation  of 
this  work  has  crossed  the  bounds  of  the  colony,  and  has 
given  Dutch  philologists,  archaeologists,  and  historians  a 
high  rank  in  the  world  of  scholarship.  It  would  have 
given  them  a very  different  rank  had  they  written  in 
an  idiom  better  known  than  Dutch.  Their  ardent 
patriotism  has  led  them  always  to  use  their  mother- 
tongue.  Honourable  as  the  motive  is,  one  can  but 
regret  their  decision  in  the  interests  of  universal  science. 
It  is  also  to  be  regretted  that  other  countries  are  ignorant 
of  this  enterprise,  and  of  the  scholars  who  place  the 
highest  and  most  disinterested  culture  at  the  service  of 
the  most  direct  and  practical  utilitarianism. 

The  adviser  combines  with  the  technical  knowledge  of 
the  official  philologist  a political  role  which  gives  a still 
higher  value  to  his  knowledge  : knowing  the  native 
mind  through  and  through,  it  is  his  advice  that  is 
requested  in  all  reforms  of  real  importance,  in  order 
that  the  obstacles  which  might  be  encountered  may  be 
foreseen.  He  is  the  moral  bond  between  the  aristocratic 
native,  whose  aspirations  he  knows  by  intuition  or 

1 Among  these  official  linguists  and  archaeologists  the  much- 
lamented  Dr.  J.  L.  A.  Brandes  (1857-1905),  whose  remarkable  and 
uninterrupted  work  did  the  greatest  credit  to  the  scheme,  deserves 
especial  mention. 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  199 


divination  better  than  any  one,  and  the  European  Power, 
which  wishes  to  understand  them,  nearly  always  realises 
them  as  far  as  possible,  and  at  least  endeavours  to  avoid 
any  conflict. 

When  the  official  selected  is  able  to  play  his  part  to 
the  full,  he  is  able,  in  spite  of  his  purely  consultative 
attitude,  to  render  the  very  greatest  services  to  the  two 
parties.  When  the  adviser  is  a scholar  as  universally 
recognised  as  Dr.  C.  Snouck  Hurgronje,  to-day  Professor 
of  Arabic  in  the  University  of  Leyden,  with  his  funda- 
mental knowledge  of  Islam  and  its  various  aspects 
throughout  the  Archipelago,  we  can  understand  what 
weight  his  advice  must  have  with  the  Dutch  Government 
concerning  the  difficult  handling  of  the  Mahomedan 
masses.1 

It  is  very  regrettable  that  we  Frenchmen,  who  are 
always  having  misunderstandings  with  the  natives  of 
our  colonies,  have  no  scholars  of  real  repute  to  use 
their  knowledge  for  the  benefit  of  present  realities,  nor 
an  administration  sufficiently  liberal  to  admit  that  the 
lucid  and  disinterested  ideas  of  these  supposed  theorists 
might  be  capable  of  furnishing  the  basis  of  a wise  and 
conciliatory  policy. 


III. 

Holland  asks  much  of  her  European  officials,  and  also 
gives  them  much  ; and  enables  them  to  cut  a worthy 
figure  beside  their  luxury-loving  “younger  brothers,” 
the  native  officials. 

The  Governor-General  draws  a salary  of  over  ^14,000, 
with  certain  allowances  for  the  expense  of  public 
appearances,  &c.,  a palace  at  Weltevreden  and  another 
at  Buitenzorg.  At  Tjipanas,  on  one  of  the  spurs  of 
Gedei,  at  a height  of  5,700  feet,  in  an  ideal  climate, 
where  the  thermometer  falls  in  the  morning  to  500  and 
rarely  exceeds  710  even  at  midday,  he  has  a country 

1 Dr.  G.  A.  T.  Hagen,  an  official  philologist,  has  replaced  Dr. 
Snouck  Hurgronje  as  “ adviser.” 


200 


JAVA 


pleasure-house  in  a great  English  park,  in  which  the 
most  magnificent  vegetation  of  the  tropics  are  mingled 
with  the  trees  of  the  north  : pines,  cypress,  chestnuts, 
oaks.  His  household  retinue,  although  simplified  on 
account  of  his  own  personal  simplicity  of  taste,  is 
semi-royal  as  regards  the  etiquette  which  obtains. 

The  members  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies  draw 
over  £3,000 ; the  Residents  from  £ 1,000  to  £1,800, 
according  to  rank ; Assistant  Residents  from  £720  to 
£1,000  ; and  comptrollers  from  £360  to  £480.  All  are 
provided  with  houses,  which  in  the  case  of  the 
Residents  and  Assistant  Residents  are  often  princely 
dwellings.  The  pensions  of  these  officials,  after  twenty- 
five  years  of  service,  amount  to  half  their  salaries.  We 
must  remember,  however,  that  these  officials  have  to 
furnish  the  interior  of  their  houses,  and  that  in  a 
luxurious  fashion  ; they  must  keep  up  a considerable 
household,  so  that  it  is  hardly  possible  for  them  to 
economise  : lastly,  they  can  obtain  leave  only  once  in 
ten  years,  and  while  it  lasts  can  only  draw  one-third  of 
their  pay. 

Such  advantages  as  the  service  possesses  are  as  a 
rule  thoroughly  deserved,  having  regard  to  the  serious 
preparation  which  these  officials  undergo,  and  the 
scrupulous  system  of  selection  of  which  they  are  the 
outcome. 

From  the  day  when  Holland  resolved  to  organise  her 
colonial  empire  in  place  of  exploiting  it,  as  she  had 
previously  done,  she  endeavoured  to  employ  the  most 
carefully  trained  and  most  irreproachable  class  of  agents. 

In  1864,  that  a class  of  officials  might  be  available 
who  should  be  fully  worthy  of  their  mission,  a Royal 
Preparatory  College  was  founded  at  Leyden,  having 
at  its  head  the  most  eminent  directors.  Fully  persuaded 
that  uniformity  in  training  is  almost  invariably  a certain 
if  unconscious  means  of  retrogression,  the  Government 
did  not  make  it  compulsory  for  candidates  to  pass 
through  the  College ; it  was  enough  that  they  could 
meet  the  demands  of  an  annual  competitive  examina- 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  201 


tion.  The  Municipal  Institute  of  Delft  competed  so 
successfully  with  the  Royal  College  that  the  State  shortly 
abandoned  the  somewhat  onerous  and,  to  its  thinking, 
equally  useless  luxury  of  a special  Colonial  College. 

The  Institute  of  Delft  was  too  practical  and  common- 
place for  some,  and  suffered  in  its  turn  from  the 
competition  of  the  University  of  Leyden.  It  has  now 
disappeared,  and  it  is  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  of  the 
said  University  alone  that  now  and  henceforth  in- 
structs the  student  in  Chinese,  Arabic,  Turkish,  Persian, 
Javanese,  Malay,  Madurese,  the  Old  Javanese  or  Kawi, 
and  the  various  dialects  of  the  isles  of  Sunda ; the 
comparative  grammars  of  the  languages  of  the  islands 
of  the  Archipelago ; also  ethnography,  geography, 
Colonial  history,  and  the  laws,  religion,  and  civilisation 
of  the  Mahomedans,  which  subjects  are  all  essential 
to  any  one  wishing  to  reach  the  true  mentality  of  these 
races.  Nothing,  as  we  see,  has  been  forgotten  that  is 
likely  to  make  of  the  student  a true  scholar,  and  a 
man  as  well  fitted  as  possible  to  his  future  task.  The 
professors,  who  are  ex-administrators,  ex-missionaries, 
or  retired  official  scholars,  who  have  passed  their  lives 
in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  combine  a consummate 
practical  experience  with  an  often  remarkable  degree  of 
pure  scholarship.  The  knowledge  of  native  tongues 
and  institutions  is  a point  the  more  firmly  insisted 
upon  because  of  the  Government’s  conviction  that 
without  a knowledge  of  his  language  there  can  never 
be  a real  understanding  between  the  native  and  the 
European. 

Every  year  the  Colonial  Minister  ascertains  the 
number  of  places  vacant  in  the  Indies  ; and  every  year 
there  is  a competitive  examination  known  as  the  Grand 
Examination  of  Officials  ( Groot-ambtevaars-examen ), 
which  is  held  simultaneously  in  The  Hague  and  in 
Batavia.  No  agent  of  the  Government  in  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  excepting  the  Governor-General,  the 
President  of  the  High  Court,  and  two  or  three  others, 
whose  nomination  is  left  to  the  royal  initiative,  can 


202 


JAVA 


evade  this  examination,  which  ensures  in  all  a serious 
weight  of  scholarship  and  knowledge. 

Those  who  do  well  in  the  examinations  are  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Colonial  Minister,  who,  having 
provided  them  with  the  expenses  of  the  voyage,  places 
them  at  the  disposal  of  the  Governor-General,  who 
appoints  them,  according  to  requirements,  to  obscure 
corners  of  the  Archipelago,  in  order  to  judge  of  their 
quality.  There  at  once  they  are  face  to  face  with 
innumerable  duties  and  responsibilities,  for  the  comp- 
troller, as  well  as  the  Resident,  although  within  narrower 
limits,  is  responsible  for  everything  : justice,  police, 
agriculture,  public  works,  the  protection  of  natives,  the 
requirements  of  the  colonists  in  the  matter  of  labour 
and  irrigation — all  depends  on  him  and  his  decisions  ; 
he  is  at  once  a public  official,  an  administrator,  and  a 
general  inspector ; he  brings  to  all  a convinced,  serious 
enthusiasm,  a slow  and  tenacious  activity,  and  a con- 
tinuous application  which  sometimes  takes  the  form  of 
a somewhat  irritating  and  oppressive  authoritativeness. 
No  one  has  a finer  sense  of  his  duties  than  the  Dutch 
official,  nor  performs  them,  as  a rule,  more  scrupu- 
lously. 


IV. 

Yet  this  ideal  official  gives  rise  to  more  than  one 
protest.  The  colonists  reproach  him  with  his  attitude 
on  the  native  question  : complaining  that  under  the 
pretext  of  protecting  the  natives,  whose  existence  has 
only  been  a matter  of  interest  to  the  State  during  the 
last  forty  years,  he  assumes  an  attitude  towards  them, 
the  planters,  which  is  only  too  often  that  of  a sus- 
picious busybody,  as  though  he  saw  in  them  the 
born  enemies  and  the  spoliators  of  the  Javanese.  The 
native  aristocracy,  on  the  other  hand,  complain  that  in 
his  uncontrollable  activity  he  has  encroached  upon  the 
limited  powers  of  local  administration  which  were  left 
to  them  by  the  decree  of  1820,  and  that  he  does  as 


THE  ADMINISTRATION  IN  JAVA  203 


little  as  he  can  to  encourage  the  Javanese  to  obtain 
an  education,  lest  he  should  be  forced  to  allow  them 
greater  initiative,  and,  as  a consequence,  gradually  to 
make  way  for  them.  They  complain  that  at  heart  he 
thinks  more  of  domesticating  than  of  uplifting  them. 

One  undeniable  fact  is  that  the  administrative  staffs, 
the  dimensions  of  which  were  enormously  enlarged  at 
the  time  when  Van  den  Bosch  introduced  his  system, 
have  never  since  been  reduced  to  the  normal,  as  each 
official  has  been  unwilling  to  sacrifice  his  place,  and 
has  been  quite  ready  to  create  new  duties  rather  than 
abandon  his  ancient  rights.  Now  the  necessity  of 
educating  the  natives,  together  with  the  Achinese  War, 
has  so  enlarged  the  budget  during  the  last  three  years 
that  its  equilibrium  has  at  last  been  lost.  Many  thought- 
ful people,  without  being  extreme  “ indigenophiles,”  are 
of  opinion  that  it  would  be  both  politic  and  financially 
sound  gradually  to  reduce  the  European  staff  for  the 
benefit  of  the  younger  generation  which  seems  so 
anxious  to  be  placed  in  a position  of  responsibility, 
and  to  obtain  responsible  tasks  of  any  kind  to  fulfil. 
The  finances  of  the  colony  would  gain  by  such  a 
step  ; the  natives  would  regain  a little  of  that  spirit  of 
initiative  which  is  often  denied  them,  and  yet  is  dis- 
couraged the  moment  it  appears,  for  fear  of  further 
claims.  By  reducing  the  Residencies  from  twenty  to 
seventeen  since  1900,  the  Government  appears  to  have 
taken  this  view  of  matters,  and  to  have  entered  upon 
this  policy  with  determination. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA 

I.  The  various  phases  of  the  economic  history  of  Java  under 
Dutch  rule. — II.  The  Van  den  Bosch  or  “forced  cultivation” 
system. — III.  The  help  given  by  the  State  to  free  labour. 
The  Botanical  Institute  at  Buitenzorg. — IV.  Native  property 
in  land. — V.  Native  crops  : rice,  coco-palms,  areca-  and  betel- 
nuts. — VI.  Bamboo  ; bamboo  hats. 


I. 

The  economic  history  of  Java  covers  many  fluctuating 
phases  corresponding  to  the  fluctuating  policies  of 
Holland. 

From  the  beginning  of  Dutch  trade  with  the  East 
to  the  failure  of  the  Company  of  Commerce  (1796) 
the  Dutch  practised  a policy  of  economic  realisation 
and  administrative  abstention.  They  busied  themselves 
in  obtaining  the  exclusive  monopoly  of  certain  mer- 
chandise whose  production  was  strictly  limited,  and  in 
drawing  royalties  in  kind  calculated  as  much  on  the 
profit  they  counted  upon  making  as  upon  the  facility 
of  extracting  it  from  the  soil ; and  that  was  their  whole 
policy. 

The  means  of  cultivation,  the  improvements  which 
might  be  introduced,  the  method  of  collecting  the 
royalties — the  fate  of  the  native,  in  short — appeared  to 
interest  them  least  of  all. 

With  the  advent  of  the  Government  of  the  Crown 
matters  changed  ; at  the  outset,  we  must  admit,  for 
economic  rather  than  for  moral  reasons. 

Holland,  in  slowly  substituting  her  rule  for  that  of 

204 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA  205 


the  native  chiefs,  intended  to  inherit  after  them,  and 
often  with  them  to  profit  by  the  abuses  by  which  they 
lived  : taxes  of  every  kind  and  forced  labour  or  corvecs : 
and  replaced  them  as  the  chief  owner  of  the  soil. 

Anxious,  however,  not  to  excite  revolts  by  inoppor- 
tune exactions,  the  Dutch  Government  endeavoured  to 
regularise  her  demands  in  a stable  fashion,  and  in  one 
as  far  as  possible  equitable. 

Matters  were  pressing,  for  the  price  of  the  spices  which 
Holland  had  hitherto  drawn  from  the  Indies  had  been 
lowered  by  competition,  and  her  revenue  had  been  greatly 

I decreased  accordingly.  As  for  rice,  she  had  little  more  to 
hope  from  it,  either  in  Java  or  in  other  parts  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, as  its  selling  price  was  low  and  its  transport  costly. 

The  total  evaluation  of  the  w'ealth  of  Java  demanded 
a considerable  time,  especially  where  a reflective  people 
like  the  Dutch  was  concerned.  Consequently  it  was 
not  they  who  realised  the  desirable  innovation  ; this 
was  reserved  for  the  English  and  for  Raffles,  who, 
following  the  model  of  the  English  colonies,  replaced 
the  payment  of  royalties  in  kind,  which  were  always 
variable,  by  the  payment  of  a land  tax  based  upon 

I the  value  of  the  soil,  of  which  half,  two-thirds  or  a 
fifth  was  payable  in  kind,  according  to  the  aforesaid 
value.  The  natives  lent  themselves  to  this  innovation 
without  difficulty.  If  this  tax  had  not  only  too  often 
been  trebled  by  the  exactions  of  the  native  chiefs,  it 
would  doubtless  have  seemed  reasonable  enough  to 
the  natives.  In  1818,  when  Holland  recovered  the 
Dutch  Indies,  she  retained  the  land  tax,  but  ensured  a 
better  distribution  of  it  by  an  attempt  at  a survey 
which  was  completed  in  1874.  In  1827  she  decided 
that  when  the  land  tax  should  exceed  10  florins  a 
third  only  should  be  paid  in  kind,  and  the  remaining 
two-thirds  in  gold  or  silver. 

Daendels  had  had  the  welfare  of  Java  at  heart  long 
before  Raffles,  and  in  his  mind  it  was  inseparable  from 
the  welfare  of  the  natives.  He,  however,  thought  of  the 
soil  before  the  inhabitants,  and  gave  his  attention  to  the 


206 


JAVA 


matter  of  corvees,  less  to  reduce  them  than  to  systematise 
them,  and  employ  them  in  a direction  which  should  be 
utilitarian  and  profitable  for  all.  Persuaded  that  the 
absence  of  communications  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
economic  stagnation  of  Java,  the  “ Iron  Marshal”  forced 
the  natives,  many  of  whom  succumbed,  to  construct  the 
magnificent  road  which  runs  from  Anjer,  the  western 
point  of  the  island,  to  Bunjuwangi,  its  eastern  extremity. 
In  less  than  two  years  he  succeeded  in  constructing  eight 
hundred  miles  of  a magnificent  high-road  with  a double 
causeway:  one  for  wagons  and  cattle,  the  other  for  riders 
and  lighter  vehicles  ; a road  which  is  still  the  admiration 
of  all  foreigners,  and  which,  in  the  end,  has  been  copied 
throughout  the  island.  This  road,  which  was  of  the 
highest  economic  and  strategic  importance,  was  built  by 
the  most  despotic  methods,  each  dessa  being  forced  to 
construct,  within  a determined  period,  a certain  portion 
of  the  road.  If  its  task  was  not  completed  by  the  day 
prescribed,  the  chiefs  of  the  village,  who  were  held 
responsible,  were  hung  by  Daendels’  order.  One  can 
imagine  the  cost  of  that  road  in  human  lives  and  in  every 
kind  of  iniquity.  This  pitiless  genius,  who  was  persuaded 
that  the  colonies  should  be  a source  of  revenue  to  the 
mother-country,  that  their  welfare  must  result  from  the 
increased  value  of  the  soil,  and  that  the  Javanese,  in 
their  smiling  apathy,  would  never  attempt  to  plant  or 
to  earn  beyond  their  daily  needs  unless  compelled  to 
do  so,  nor  cultivate  more  remunerative  crops  than  rice, 
inaugurated  the  system  of  “forced  crops,”  or  com- 
pulsory cultivation,  by  decreeing  that  every  Javanese 
village  about  which  the  soil  was  favourable  to  coffee 
should  cultivate  a regulation  quantity — one  thousand 
trees  per  family.  Two-fifths  of  the  crop  was  to  enter 
the  warehouses  of  the  Government,  under  penalty  of 
a heavy  fine,  equivalent  to  its  value ; the  three-fifths 
remaining  belonged  to  the  cultivators,  who  sold  them  to 
the  Government  at  a price  established  according  to  the 
market  values,  and  of  course  always  far  inferior  to  the 
real  value.  The  rule  of  Daendels  was  not  long  enough 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA  207 


to  allow  him  to  complete  his  experiences  of  agriculture. 
The  first  harvests  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Government 
only  on  the  coast,  where  it  was  possible  to  supervise  them  ; 
but  there,  too,  the  coffee  was  of  indifferent  quality.  In 
the  interior,  owing  to  the  lack  of  transport,  or  on  account 
of  smuggling,  it  was  sold  at  ridiculous  prices.  The 
natives  profited  by  the  English  domination  by  returning 
to  the  cultivation  of  rice,  which  at  least  would  always 
assure  them  of  a living. 

The  Dutch,  upon  their  return  to  Java,  resumed  the 
“ landrente  ” and  corvees  instead  of  the  high-handed 
proceedings  of  Daendels,  and  until  1824  managed  to 
draw  a sufficient  revenue.  But  at  this  time,  while  the 
European  administrative  system  which  they  had  been 
slowly  installing  in  the  island  was  a great  burden  on  the 
budget,  the  free  labour  of  the  scantily  encouraged  colonists 
had  not  conduced  to  a flow  of  capital  from  Holland. 
Deficits  and  loans  commenced.  In  1833  the  colony  was 
in  debt,  and  the  coffers  of  Holland  were  absolutely  empty 
at  the  end  of  the  war  of  secession  with  Belgium.  General 
Count  Van  den  Bosch  presented  himself,  with  an  offer  to 
relieve  the  budget  and  fill  the  coffers.  He  was  given 
a free  hand,  and  installed  in  the  East  Indies  the 
“system  of  forced  cultures”  ( Cultuurstelsel , or  op  hoog 
gezag  ingevoerde  kidturen),  which  at  one  moment  was  the 
glory  of  his  name,  and  afterwards  became  his  disgrace. 
His  utilitarian  genius,  a trifle  more  bureaucratic  than  that 
of  Daendels,  was  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  latter  ; he  had 
the  same  lucidity  and  the  same  unconscious  immorality 
of  opinion.  As  Governor-General  from  1830  to  1834, 
and  from  1834  to  1839  as  Colonial  Minister,  Van  den 
Bosch  disposed  of  the  fate  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and 
• in  spite  of  the  highest  intentions,  his  system  was  really 
one  of  regulated  tribute-taking. 

II. 

To  force  the  native  to  cultivate  something  more  than 
rice,  Van  den  Bosch  took  from  each,  under  the  pretext 


208 


JAVA 


of  replacing  the  “landrente,"  a fifth  part  of  his  land. 
The  native  owed  a variable  number  of  days  of  com- 
pulsory labour,  or  corvee,  to  the  State.  Sometimes  the 
authorities  went  so  far  as  to  demand  the  maximum  of 
sixty  days  per  person,  which  he  was  forced  to  devote 
to  cultivating  ‘‘rich”  crops  for  the  benefit  of  the  Govern- 
ment : sugar,  coffee,  pepper,  indigo,  tea,  tobacco  ; and 
these  crops  he  had  to  cultivate  on  the  land  which  had 
been  taken  from  him.  The  State  thus  benefited  twice 
over,  and  without  expending  much  energy,  for  it  leased 
its  lands  and  those  subject  to  the  corvee  to  contractors 
who  undertook  to  feed  the  workers  and  pay  the  adminis- 
tration a fixed  price  in  advance  for  the  crop. 

If  the  contractor  did  not  lose  by  this  arrangement,  one 
can  imagine  what  the  State  made  by  it,  especially  as  it 
decided,  in  order  to  draw  a double  profit,  not  to  substitute 
compulsory  crops  for  the  “ landrente,”  but  to  levy  both 
together.  A veritable  rain  of  gold  fell  upon  Holland 
from  the  Indies.  Every  year  the  budget  showed  a credit 
balance  of  30,000,000  florins  (.£2,500,000),  which  went  to 
swell  the  coffers  of  Holland,  filling  the  deficit  left  by  the 
Belgian  War,  and  helping  to  pay  for  important  public 
works,  and  to  constitute  a reserve  fund.  The  share- 
holders spoke  of  nothing  but  of  their  saviour,  Van  den 
Bosch.  In  twelve  years  nearly  2,000,000,000  florins 
(^166,000,000)  was  extracted  from  the  colony  by  the 
most  scandalous  system  of  spoliation. 

The  natives  did  not  rebel,  for  their  adat,  with  their 
petty  princelets,  had  accustomed  them  to  all  kinds  of 
extortions,  and  Van  den  Bosch  had  the  art  of  winning 
over  the  chiefs  to  this  legal  spoliation,  interesting  them 
in  it  by  means  of  a large  bonus  on  the  crops  of  those 
under  their  administration.  The  latter  suffered  cruelly. 
Although  they  had  been  promised  that  the  land  tax  should 
be  repealed,  they  were  forced  to  pay  it  after  all ; although 
a fifth  of  their  land  had  been  taken  from  them,  they 
gradually  saw  the  rest  taken  also  as  soon  as  it  was  made 
fit  for  cultivation.  For  their  paddy-fields  they  were  left 
only  tracts  of  land  so  far  from  their  villages  that  the 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA  209 

continual  corvees  left  them  barely  the  time  to  sow  the 
crop.  The  contractors  fed  them  not  at  all,  or  badly ; 
they  were  obliged  to  sell  their  buffalo,  and  to  go  into 
debt,  and  they  were  always  struggling  to  cultivate  those 
remunerative  crops  which  for  them  meant  nothing  but 
poverty  and  ruin.  But  already  authoritative  voices,  even 
in  Holland,  were  raised  in  their  favour.  The  Liberal 
Party,  having  at  its  head  men  of  action  such  as  Fransen 
van  de  Putte,  writers  like  Veth  and  Van  den  Lith,  loudly 
expressed  its  indignation  that  a moral  and  supposedly 
civilised  people  should,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  con- 
demn another  to  compulsory  labour,  and  steal  its  lands 
and  its  money,  without  even  using  the  latter  to  ameliorate 
its  lot  or  to  educate  it.  An  ex-official,  who  had  spent 
his  life  in  the  East  Indies,  Multatuli  (Eduard  Douwes 
Dekker),  in  his  Max  Havelaar,  had  eloquently  pleaded 
the  cause  of  the  natives  with  the  people  of  Holland.  The 
book  made  a great  sensation  in  Holland,  and  even  in 
Europe.  The  struggle  was  greatly  embittered,  for  the 
shareholders  fought  for  their  dividends,  and  the  State  to 
balance  its  budget ; but  the  conscience  of  the  people, 
already  awakened,  was  stunned  by  a new  disaster.  Van 
den  Bosch,  in  order  to  prevent  all  chance  of  rebellion, 
had  wished  to  crown  his  work  by  building  a system  of 
fortifications  at  Ambarawa,  and  around  Samarang  and 
Surabaja.  The  corvees  impressed  for  that  purpose  in  1849 
prevented  the  natives  from  attending  to  their  rice-fields, 
and  in  the  east  of  the  island  a terrible  famine  occurred  : 
the  latest  of  many  since  the  organisation  of  the  system  of 
compulsory  crops.  Nearly  half  a million  natives  died. 
Pastor  Van  Hoevell,  who  had  lived  in  the  Indies,  placed 
the  matter  once  again  before  Parliament  and  the  people, 
bringing  to  his  task  the  most  moving  eloquence.  The 
system  was  condemned.  It  was  slowly  disorganised,  and 
the  policy  of  enriching  the  island  by  means  of  free 
labour  ( vrije-arbeid ) replaced  it.  Gradually  the  com- 
pulsory crops  disappeared ; the  last,  namely  sugar,  being 
abolished  in  1890,  when  the  Government  maintained  the 
coffee  crop  only  for  a limited  period  and  with  a promise  to 

I5 


210 


JAVA 


extinguish  the  policy  completely  within  a certain  fixed 
time. 

These  reforms,  which  were  due  to  the  Liberal  Party, 
were  crowned  by  the  agrarian  law  ( agrarische  wet)  of 
1870,  by  which  the  State  guaranteed  to  the  natives  the 
right  of  property  in  the  soil  which  they  themselves  had 
cleared  or  cultivated ; and  leased  all  lands  which 
remained  uncultivated  for  a term  of  seventy-five  years 
to  individual  tenants.  The  corvees  ( heerendiensten ) were 
reduced  to  twenty  and  thirty-two  days,  according  to  the 
provinces,  and  were  to  be  imposed  solely  for  works  of 
public  utility  ; and  by  the  payment  of  an  annual  royalty 
of  1 florin  per  head  a native  could  remain  undisturbed. 

The  system  of  Van  den  Bosch  was  extremely  oppres- 
sive and  despoiled  the  natives.  It  has  deprived  Java  of 
enormous  sums  of  money  and  of  precious  lives.  By  con- 
demning the  population  for  more  than  fourteen  years  to 
hard  labour,  which  was  also  for  them  unjust  and  fruitless 
labour,  it  led  to  their  intellectual  retrogression  ; it  was 
therefore,  from  the  ethical  standpoint,  absolutely  un- 
pardonable. Yet  we  cannot  forget  that  by  this  realistic 
sacrifice  of  a whole  generation  it  transformed  the  island 
into  one  of  the  richest  and  most  fruitful  of  agricultural 
countries.  It  resulted,  especially  in  the  eastern  provinces, 
where  the  soil  is  particularly  fertile,  in  the  cultivation 
of  crops  which  were  infinitely  more  profitable  than  rice, 
which  are  to-day  the  source  of  welfare  and  comfort ; and 
the  increased  value  of  land  throughout  the  island  has 
enabled  the  latter  to  feed  a population  which  to-day 
amounts  to  more  than  29,000,000  inhabitants  ; while  in 
1813  the  population  numbered  only  6,000,000.  Once 
more  the  truth  of  the  famous  adage  is  exemplified  : “Woe 
to  them  that  make  revolutions  : happy  are  they  who 
inherit  after  them  ! ” 

The  extension  of  free  labour,  and  the  support  of  Dutch 
capital,  have  brought  remarkable  prosperity  to  Java  since 
1850  ; and  the  State,  upon  abandoning  the  principles 
of  Van  den  Bosch,  was  moved  by  a spirit  of  salutary 
reaction,  and  turned  to  the  natives  with  a genuine 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA  211 


solicitude,  so  that  first  the  soil  and  then  the  native  popu- 
lation attained  their  true  value,  to  the  greater  profit  and 
honour  of  both  colony  and  mother-country. 

III. 

Since  then  the  State  has  demonstrated  its  ardent  desire 
to  assist  both  colonists  and  natives  in  the  intensive 
agricultural  development  which  is  making  the  fortune  of 
Java.  The  Botanical  Institute  of  Buitenzorg  ('s  Lands 
Plantentuin  te  Buitenzorg)  is  not  the  least  happy  of  its 
efforts.  This  establishment,  which  has  no  rival  in  the 
world,  is  not  merely  a marvellous  assemblage  of  all  the 
products  of  the  flora  of  the  Archipelago  ; its  object  is 
practical  as  well  as  scientific.  Beauty  is  only  its  outward 
form;  truth  and  utility  are  its  inner  purpose.  It  com- 
prises the  Botanical  Garden  proper  of  145  acres  at 
Buitenzorg  itself,  and  as  annexes  the  experimental  gardens 
at  Tjikeumeu,  of  180  acres  ; the  mountain  gardens  of 
Tjibodas,  which  have  a much  larger  area ; and  finally  the 
virgin  forest  of  Tjibodas,  of  700  acres.  At  each  of 
these  establishments  are  laboratories,  museums,  libraries, 
herbaria,  and  collections,  directed  by  scientists  of  the 
highest  rank,  from  the  founder  of  the  Institute,  Professor 
Reinwardt,  of  Amsterdam,  to  the  last  director,  the  emi- 
nent Dr.  Treub.  In  the  experimental  gardens  attempts 
at  the  acclimatisation  of  foreign  plants  and  trees  of 
agricultural  value  are  carried  on  uninterruptedly ; the 
degree  of  resistance  which  they  offer  under  determined 
conditions  is  studied  ; experiments  are  made  in  the  cross- 
ing and  improvement  of  the  flora  of  the  country  ; in 
short,  the  practical  value  and  uses  of  the  whole  flora  are 
investigated.  In  the  laboratories,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
studied  vegetable  parasites,  noxious  insects,  chemical 
manures,  &c. — all  that  is  capable  of  destroying  or  enrich- 
ing that  flora.  The  services  which  these  laboratories 
have  rendered  in  investigating  the  maladies  peculiar  to 
sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  coffee  have  been  so  great  that 
private  individuals  have  built  such  laboratories  at  their 


212 


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own  expense  in  many  parts  of  Java,  for  the  better  guidance 
of  their  own  plantations. 

This  Botanical  Institute,  so  noted  for  its  purely  scientific 
labours  as  well  as  for  its  practical  advice,  costs  the  East 
Indies  342,400  florins  a year,  or  .£29,360,  while  the 
budget  of  agriculture  alone  amounts  to  7,200,000  florins 
(^600,000),  which  sum  is  employed  in  the  introduction 
of  new  crops  or  the  improvement  of  those  already 
existing  in  Java.1 

The  rebuilding  of  the  Agricultural  College  for  natives 
(Landbouwschool)  at  Buitenzorg,  which  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1902,  and  which  was  attended  by  many  sons  of 
chiefs,  future  administrators  of  great  agricultural  estates, 
will  also,  by  increasing  the  yield  of  the  soil,  and  therefore 
the  welfare  of  the  natives,  have  the  most  desirable 
influence  upon  the  improvement  of  the  masses  attached 
to  the  soil. 


IV. 

The  system  of  native  property  in  Java  and  Madura, 
on  account  of  their  vast  extent,  could  hardly  have  been  a 
uniform  system.  In  the  west  and  in  the  east  the  owner- 
ship of  land  is  pre-eminently  hereditary  and  individual, 
with  the  reservation  that  the  owners,  in  relation  to  the 
State,  which  has  succeeded  to  their  princes,  can  regard 
themselves  only  as  the  tenants  for  life,  who  cannot  be 
ejected  or  molested  as  long  as  they  fulfil  their  obligations. 
In  the  centre  of  Java  individual  and  communal  pro- 
perty co-exist  side  by  side ; the  native  possessing  as 
his  individual  property  the  plot  on  which  his  house  is 
built,  and  receiving  from  the  chief  of  the  village,  every 
three,  four,  or  five  years,  the  field  which  is  to  furnish  his 
subsistence  and  that  of  his  family.  The  system  of 
collective  ownership  has  the  defect  that  it  lends  itself  to 
injustice  in  the  distribution  of  the  soil,  as  the  chief  can 
always  favour  his  own  relations  ; moreover,  the  native 
feels  no  great  enthusiasm  for  the  land  when  he  knows 

1 Concerning  the  Botanical  Gardens  of  Buitenzorg  see  the 
note  on  p.  62. 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA  213 


that  in  a year  or  two  it  will  pass  into  other  hands. 
Everywhere  the  Dutch  Government  has  taken  care  to 
limit  the  portion  of  land  which  the  native  can  alienate,  in 
order  to  save  him  from  being  completely  despoiled, 
whether  by  Europeans  or  the  Chinese. 

V. 

Rice  is  still  the  most  important  of  all  crops  in  Java  and 
Madura.  Of  the  7,460,000  acres  cultivated  by  the  natives, 
5,438,000  acres  are  under  rice. 

The  rice  lands  are  of  two  kinds  : the  wet  rice-fields, 
or  sawahs,  which  are  by  far  the  more  productive,  and  the 
dry  fields,  or  tegals,  which  are  found  where  running 
water  and  rains  are  rare.1 

The  sawahs  consist  of  level  plots  surrounded  by  little 
dykes  or  banks,  which  allow  the  water  to  be  run  in  or  off 
at  will.  If  the  land  is  sloping,  that  defect  is  remedied 
by  disposing  the  fields  in  a succession  of  terraces,  the 
water  trickling  from  one  to  the  other  ; and  by  carrying 
such  a series  of  terraces  upwards  rice  may  be  grown 
as  high  as  3,500  feet. 

The  natives  usually  work  in  the  sawahs  at  the  beginning 
of  the  rainy  season,  when  they  are  flooded.  Having 
repaired  the  water-channels  and  tested  the  solidity  of  the 
dykes,  they  sow  the  rice  in  the  soft  mud  ; either  in  the 
entire  ear,  according  to  the  traditional  native  method, 
or  by  sowing  the  grain  by  hand  ; a method  which  results 
in  a smaller  waste  of  rice  and  a better  harvest. 

After  the  sowing  the  soil  is  flooded  by  day  and  allowed 
to  drain  at  night  for  a -period  of  eight  or  ten  days.  At 
the  end  of  a month  or  six  weeks,  according  to  the  soil, 
the  spikes  will  already  have  reached  a certain  height. 

1 The  Hindus  have  left  the  Javanese  as  an  inheritance  a 
remarkable  system  of  irrigation,  which  has  been  still  further 
perfected  by  Dutch  engineers.  Of  this  the  natives  make  excellent 
use.  See  J.  E.  de  Meyier,  “ Irrigation  in  Java,”  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol.  liv.,  part  6 (New 
York,  1908,  8vo).  See  also  Bernard,  Amenagement  des  eaux  d Java, 
irrigation  des  riziere  (Paris,  1903,  4to). 


214 


JAVA 


They  are  then  taken  from  the  limited  space  in  which  they 
were  confined  and  replanted  in  the  sawahs  in  groups 
of  two  or  three  stems  together,  each  group  being  stuck  in 
the  muddy  soil  at  a distance  of  half  an  inch  to  an  inch 
from  its  neighbours. 

The  sawahs  require  neither  fattening  nor  manuring. 
In  some  districts  the  rice  is  not  even  thinned  out  or 
replanted,  but  the  rice  is  sown  in  the  sawahs  themselves, 
which  in  this  case  must  be  very  soft.  As  this  process 
results  in  the  loss  of  a great  deal  of  grain,  it  is  becoming 
less  usual. 

After  the  operation  of  replanting,  the  soil  is  successively 
flooded  and  drained  every  two  or  three  days,  care  being 
taken  that  it  is  dry  by  the  time  of  the  harvest ; and  at  the 
moment  of  flowering  all  noxious  weeds  must  be  removed 
and  the  crop  protected  against  the  depredations  of  birds 
and  beasts.  It  is  usual  to  replant  in  November  or 
December,  or  at  latest  in  January  ; the  crop  is  gathered  at 
the  end  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  month,  according  to  the 
species  of  rice  and  the  altitude.  The  natives  have  a 
curious  aversion  to  a June  harvest ; they  pretend  that  rice 
gathered  in  that  month  will  inevitably  be  the  prey  of 
some  calamity,  or  of  birds,  insects,  disease,  &c. 

The  tegals,  or  dry  rice-fields,  are  first  of  all  tilled  with  a 
plough,  or  patjol  (a  sort  of  Javanese  spade),  so  as  to  make 
it  thoroughly  loose.  It  is  then  smoothed  and  cleared, 
and  holes  are  made  in  the  surface  at  a distance  of  seven 
or  eight  inches  from  one  another.  In  these  the  rice  is 
deposited  and  left  to  germinate,  which  it  does  with 
variable  success.  This  method,  employed  on  land  newly 
reclaimed,  gives  a far  smaller  yield  than  the  sawahs,  as 
might  be  supposed.  The  rice  employed  is  usually  the 
mountain  paddy,  padi  gaga  ( padi  ladang,  padi  hoeman, 
padi  tigal ) or  Oriza  Montana  Lour. 

Where  there  is  water  in  abundance  the  rice  may  be 
planted  at  any  time  of  the  year.  Replanting  and  harvest- 
ing are  effected  stem  by  stem  ; the  first  with  the  feet 
in  the  mud,  and  the  back  bent  under  the  burning  sun. 
The  harvest  is  gathered  standing,  as  the  stem  is  cut  at  a 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA  215 


height  of  2 feet  8 inches  from  the  ground.  Both  opera- 
tions are  performed  collectively,  the  whole  village  working 
in  each  rice-field  successively,  with  a genuine  holiday 
spirit.  These  are  times  impatiently  anticipated  by  the 
whole  dessa,  and  are  terminated  by  rejoicings.  In  vain 
have  the  Europeans  tried  to  teach  the  Javanese  to  mow 
or  reap  his  rice  ; he  obstinately  insists  upon  cutting  it  ear 
by  ear,  according  to  tradition,  with  his  little  curved  knife, 
which  he  handles  with  rare  dexterity,  but  like  a man  not 
pressed  for  time.  He  refuses  even  to  adopt  the  sickle 
used  in  Sumatra. 

The  rice,  stacked  in  little  bundles  and  dried  on  the  spot, 
is  then  placed  in  a trough,  where  a stamp  or  pestle 
separates  the  grain  from  the  straw,  the  latter  being 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  plaits  for  hats  of  a 
good  class.  The  grain  is  husked  in  primitive  mills,  com- 
posed of  a large  mortar,  in  which  disks  of  iron,  stone,  or 
wood  are  kept  moving  by  buffalo  traction  or  water  power. 

Although  the  cultivation  of  rice  demands  only  a 
limited  amount  of  labour,  the  harvest  is  often  disputed 
by  birds,  wild  boar,  insects,  and  disease  ; a particular 
enemy  being  a certain  caterpillar,  which  issues  from  the 
egg  when  the  field  is  dry,  and  gnaws  the  stem  ; or 
the  walang  sangit  ( Leptocorisa  acuta  Thumb.),  which  pre- 
vents the  grain  from  forming,  and  ruins  whole  fields. 
The  mentek  (=  evil  spirit),  a sort  of  rust  or  mildew 
which  sears  the  blades,  and  afterwards  attacks  the  roots, 
does  almost  as  much  damage.  But  the  depredations  of 
the  tikus  (mice)  are  worst  of  all. 

Formerly,  after  the  first  rice  harvest,  the  native  used  to 
attempt  to  obtain  a second  or  even  a third  crop  from  the 
same  soil,  which  quickly  exhausted  it.  As  a result 
of  the  advice,  and  even  the  prohibitions  of  the  Govern- 
ment, they  have  now  abandoned  this  practice.  Now, 
when  the  rice  crop  is  gathered,  they  usually  sow  potatoes 
in  the  sawahs,  or  artichokes,  which  spring  up  in  two  or 
three  months.  In  the  Preangers  and  in  Bantam,  thanks 
to  the  permanent  abundance  of  running  water,  the 
sawahs  are  converted  into  fish-ponds.  The  fish  reared 


216 


JAVA 


or  fattened  in  these  ponds  are  excellent  eating  at  the 
end  of  two  or  three  months,  and  bring  in  a good  profit. 

The  normal  production  of  rice  in  Java  is  io  to  12 
piculs  per  acre,  the  picul  amounting  to  some  135  lbs. 
The  rice-crop  has  continually  improved;  in  1895  Java 
produced  only  36,702  tons  ; in  1907  the  crop  amounted 
to  38,864  tons.  In  1900,  an  especially  fertile  year,  the 
harvest  was  one  of  39,887  tons.  Yet  this  great  quantity 
of  rice  is  still  insufficient  for  Java,  and  large  quantities 
are  annually  imported  from  Saigon  and  Singapore. 

Maize  ( djagong ) is  also  grown  by  the  natives  around 
their  houses,  but  in  a far  less  degree  than  rice.  Its  culti- 
vation has  been  increasing  in  Madura. 

Another  culture — the  coco-nut  and  the  palm  which 
bears  it  ( kalapa ) — which  the  native  until  quite  recently 
produced  only  in  proportion  to  his  personal  needs,  is  now 
very  general  throughout  Java,  and  is  the  subject  of  a 
great  export  trade.  The  coco-palm  grows  more  especi- 
ally in  the  centre  of  Java,  in  the  Residency  of  Kedu, 
where  it  attains  a most  vigorous  growth,  but  does  not 
require  manuring,  nor  any  particular  care,  as  it  does  in 
Ceylon. 

There  is  a very  important  local  trade  in  the  entire  nuts, 
as  both  the  natives  and  the  planters  appreciate  the 
refreshing  and  agreeable  juice  of  the  fresh  nut  as  a 
beverage.  They  are  also  employed  in  cookery.  Again, 
the  coco-palm  is  an  oleaginous  plant  of  the  first  rank. 
The  oil  extracted  from  the  kernel,  which  is  previously 
broken  into  two  or  three  pieces  and  dried,  when  it  is 
known  as  copra,  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
candles,  &c.  ; it  also  yields  an  excellent  vegetable  fat 
(vegetaline,  vegetable  butter,  vegetable  suet,  Palmine,  &c.), 
which  is  employed  in  making  biscuits,  cakes,  and  pastry, 
and  is  more  and  more  rapidly  replacing  dairy  butter  in 
the  industrial  production  of  such  articles,  and  in  the 
private  kitchen. 

The  fresh  kernel,  grated  and  dried,  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  dishes,  pastries,  cakes,  &c.,  in  Holland, 
Austria,  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States.  The 


THE  PRODUCTS  OF  JAVA 


217 


residue  left  after  the  extraction  of  oil,  or  copra  oil-cake, 
is  an  excellent  food  for  cattle,  and  is  also  used  as  a 
manure. 

The  fibrous  envelope  of  the  coco-nut  furnishes,  after 
steeping,  the  familiar  coco-nut  fibre,  which  is  used  for 
rope-making,  in  cheap  brooms  and  scrubbing-brushes, 
for  caulking  the  seams  of  ships,  and  in  coco-nut  fibre 
matting,  &c. 

The  exports  from  this  source,  which  consist  chiefly  of 
copra,  commenced  in  1859,  and  in  1900  had  attained  a 
value  for  the  whole  of  the  Dutch  Indies  of  .£420,000. 
Java  was  responsible  for  about  one-half  of  this  amount, 
which  was  principally  exported  from  Tjilatjap,  Surabaja, 
and  Batavia  to  Holland,  France,  and  Singapore.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  important  articles  of  trade  between 
France  and  the  Dutch  colonies. 

The  areca-nut  and  the  betel-nut  are  grown  for  local 
use,  in  order  to  provide  sirih,  which  the  natives  are 
always  chewing. 


VI. 

Another  plant,  which,  although  its  cultivation  demands 
no  care,  has  always  provided  the  natives  with  their  prin- 
cipal building  materials,  the  greater  part  of  their  furniture, 
and  their  kitchen  utensils,  is  the  bamboo.  This  has 
also  given  birth  to  a hat-making  industry,  the  chief 
centres  of  which  are  Bantam  and  the  Tangarang  district, 
whose  products  have  a wide  sale  in  France  and  the 
United  States.  Created  by  the  Chinese  of  Manilla,  this 
industry  now  occupies  sixty  thousand  natives.  The 
bamboo  hat,  which  is  as  flexible  as  the  Manilla  hat,  has, 
however,  the  serious  defect  of  turning  yellow  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  and  it  cannot  be  washed.  In  its 
manufacture  the  men  cut  into  thin  ribbons  the  outer 
skin  of  a certain  bamboo  ; the  women  and  children  of 
the  village  plait  in  two  working  days  a hat  which  sells 
for  about  4d.  Prices  naturally  vary  with  the  fineness  of 
the  plait,  and  the  European  agents  who  buy  the  hats  on 


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the  spot,  with  the  help  of  Malay  and  Chinese  assistants, 
distinguish  as  many  as  ten  qualities.  The  purchases  of 
the  French  and  American  houses  have  nearly  doubled 
the  prices,  especially  of  those  of  exceptional  quality, 
which  sell  in  France  to-day  at  from  £i  to  £i  4s.  These 
require  two  months  of  continual  work.  Before  they  are 
sold  the  brims  of  the  hats  are  hemmed,  and  they  are  steeped 
in  bisulphite  of  soda  in  order  to  bleach  them,  and  dried 
in  the  sun.  At  one  time  peroxide  of  hydrogen  was 
employed,  but  the  use  of  bisulphite  of  soda  was  resumed, 
as  certain  Protectionist  countries  would  not  accept  hats 
as  being  in  the  unfinished  state  if  they  happened  to  be 
of  a startling  whiteness. 

Any  hats  stained  by  the  bisulphite  are  dyed  by  the 
Chinese  and  sold  to  the  natives  ; or  they  are  sold  by  the 
manufacturers  as  sun-helmets,  after  having  been  placed 
in  a metal  mould  and  covered  with  white  cloth. 

The  perfect  examples  are  sold  to  Europe  and  America, 
in  zinc-lined  cases  containing  from  1,200  to  2,100,  accord- 
ing to  the  quality.  In  1900  the  total  exports  amounted 
to  four  millions  of  hats,  and  one  single  house  in  Tan- 
gerang  despatched  more  than  thirty  thousand  a week.1 

The  French  house,  L.  Platon,  which  has  its  head- 
quarters at  Kali-Besar  (Batavia),  and  agents  at  Bordeaux, 
also  exports  a great  quantity  of  these  hats.  The  abun- 
dance of  the  bamboo,  the  ability  of  the  natives,  and 
the  cheapness  and  quality  of  labour,  assure  a great  future 
to  this  industry. 

1 See  De  Rivet’s  book,  L'Indusirie  du  chapeau  en  Equateur  et  au 
Perou  (Librairie  Orientale  et  Americaine,  Paris,  E.  Guilmoto). 


CHAPTER  XI 


AGRICULTURE  : VARIOUS  CROPS 

I.  Coffee. — II.  Sugar-cane. — III.  Tobacco. — IV.  Tea. — V.  Quinine. 
VI.  Indigo. — VII.  Lesser  crops  : pepper,  cinnamon,  cotton,  &c. 


I. 

Among  the  more  remunerative  crops  not  indigenous  to 
Java,  by  far  the  most  important  is  coffee. 

In  1699  Henricus  Zwaardecroon  imported  some  slips 
or  cuttings  of  coffee-trees  from  Malabar  into  Java.  In 
1706  the  first  crop  made  its  appearance  upon  the 
markets  of  Holland,  when  it  was  welcomed  to  such 
effect  that,  although  throughout  the  eighteenth  century 
all  efforts  to  extend  the  production  of  coffee  through  the 
centre  and  the  east  of  Java  were  unsuccessful,  yet  coffee 
was  one  of  the  first  crops  to  be  declared  compulsory  by 
Van  den  Bosch. 

Coffee  did  then  spread  all  over  Java.  It  is  the  last 
crop  which  the  State  has  retained  partially  in  its  own 
hands ; but  its  intervention  in  this  department  of  agri- 
culture has  no  longer  the  harmful  character  of  a mono- 
poly. The  poor  results  obtained  by  the  system  have  led 
to  its  entire  abandonment  in  the  provinces  of  Bantam, 
and  the  districts  of  Japara  and  Rembang,  and  have  led  to 
its  being  restricted  in  many  others.  In  1900  there  were 
still  288,000  families  cultivating  66,000,000  trees,  of 
which  15,246,000  were  not  yet  bearing,  for  the  Govern- 
ment of  Holland ; but  the  latter  pays  them  for  the 
harvest  far  more  generously  than  of  old. 

The  free  plantations  contained  181,000,000  trees,  of 

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which  about  16,000,000  were  not  yet  bearing ; and 
the  total  area  covered  by  the  State  and  the  free  planta- 
tions was  about  300,000  acres,  which  has  since  steadily 
increased,  for  50  per  cent,  of  the  fallow  land  conceded 
upon  very  long  lease  is  planted  with  coffee,  and  the 
State  does  its  utmost  to  encourage  the  native  to  grow  it 
on  his  own  property,  by  furnishing  him  with  seed  and 
cuttings  of  Liberia  coffee.  The  Javanese,  who  are  un- 
accustomed to  crops  that  require  prolonged  care,  and 
are  very  badly  off  for  tools,  confine  themselves  to  gather- 
ing the  crop,  and  removing  the  coffee  from  the  shell  by 
shaking  it  in  baskets.  It  is  then  delivered,  at  a regulation 
price,  to  Europeans  who  complete  the  preparation  of  the 
berry,  and  then,  for  a small  commission,  despatch  it  to 
the  Government  warehouses. 

Coffee  grows  well  in  Java  at  all  altitudes  up  to  4,000  feet ; 
but  does  best  between  the  limits  of  1,400  and  2,800  feet. 

The  principal  varieties  cultivated  in  Java  are  the  Coffea 
arabica  and  the  Coffea  liberica,  the  latter  being  the  better 
adapted  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  terrible  Hemileia 
vastatrix ; the  Coffea  maragogypa  is  also  grown  on  a 
smaller  scale,  and  attempts  are  being  made  to  acclimatise 
the  Coffea  stenophylla  from  Central  Africa.  In  view  of  the 
important  part  which  the  cultivation  of  coffee  plays  in 
the  colony,  the  laboratories  of  Buitenzorg  and  the 
experimental  gardens  are  busily  increasing  their  research 
work  with  a view  to  attacking  the  parasites  of  the 
precious  shrub,  and  to  introducing  the  more  productive 
and  resistant  varieties.  The  planters  themselves  have 
even  founded  a station  at  Buitenzorg  which  deals 
entirely  with  coffee,  and  they  do  not,  as  a rule,  undertake 
the  planting  of  coffee  until  they  have  undergone  a 
serious  course  of  study  at  the  Agricultural  College  of 
Wageningen  in  Holland,  where  the  department  of 
tropical  agriculture  and  arboriculture,  together  with  the 
courses  in  Malay  and  the  ethnology  of  the  Archipelago, 
afford  them  a very  excellent  training  for  the  purpose.1 

1 The  Higher  Royal  College  of  Agriculture,  Horticulture  and 
Forestry  of  Wageningen  ( Rijks  hoogere  Land-,  Tuin-  en  Boshbouw 


NATIVE  IRRIGATION  WHEELS. 

(Rattan  wheels,  wattle  paddles,  bamboo  buckets,  wooden  pipes.) 


To  face  p.  220. 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  221 


Liberia  coffee  is  grown  more  especially  on  the  plains  ; 
all  varieties  grow  best  on  soils  which  contain  an  excess 
neither  of  clay  nor  of  sand,  are  not  too  heavy,  and  are 
well  mixed  with  humus. 

Land  for  a new  plantation  is  broken  up  at  the 
beginning  of  the  dry  season.  The  trees — if  it  be  forest 
land — may  be  felled  or  burned ; in  the  latter  case  the 
heat  of  their  burning  increases  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
Even  when  a whole  forest  is  cut  down,  care  is  taken  to 
leave  rows  of  trees  as  windbreaks,  which  protect  the 
young  shrubs  from  the  prevailing  winds.1 

The  land  must  then  be  thoroughly  freed  from  harmful 
weeds,  sometimes  by  ploughing,  more  often  by  the 
patjol,  and  sometimes  by  hand  or  with  a curved  knife 
(arit)  ; when  the  land  is  sloping  the  trees  are  planted  in 
terraces.  It  is  especially  necessary  to  eradicate  the  alang- 
alang  (Imperata  arundinacea  Cyr.),  and  to  burn  it,  roots 
and  all.  Otherwise,  even  if  buried  in  heaps  at  the  end 
of  the  furrows,  it  will  spring  up  and  resume  its  possession 
of  the  soil  in  a few  days. 

The  next  step  is  to  dig  a series  of  pits  some  2 feet 
deep  and  2 feet  wide,  which  are  left  open  to  the  air  for 
two  months,  and  then  filled  with  manure,  except  in  the 
case  of  virgin  land,  which  does  not  require  it,  or  where 
it  would  be  a matter  of  too  great  difficulty  to  procure  it. 
On  land  thus  prepared,  provided  the  roots  are  not 
impeded  by  stones  or  too  hard  a soil,  the  young  shrubs 
will  grow  with  great  vigour.  They  may  advantageously 
be  sheltered  by  a screen  of  trees,  a special  variety  being 
employed  for  this  purpose  : the  dadaps  (Erythrine,  Hypa- 
phorus  subumbrans)  ; or  the  Albizzia  stipulata,  or 

school  te  wageningen ) educates  agronomic  engineers  and  forestry 
officers.  It  possesses  a department  for  the  training  of  those  who 
intend  to  emigrate  to  the  East  Indies,  whether  in  the  service  of  the 
State,  or  that  of  private  employers,  or  who  wish  to  be  able  to 
become  competent  managers  of  plantations.  See  the  Programma 
der  Lessen  voor  1909-1910  (Wageningen,  published  by  van  F.  E. 
Haak,  1909,  8vo). 

1 For  a study  of  coffee-planting  see  Sao  Paolo  du  Bresil,  by 
L.  Casabona  (Librairie  Orientale  et  Americaine,  E.  Guilmoto). 


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Albizzia  molucrana,  which  gives  an  admirable  shade,  but 
is  very  fragile  ; or  the  Deguelia  micropliylla,  which  is 
inclined  to  grow  to  an  excessive  height.  The  dadap  is 
the  best  of  these  trees.  The  number  of  these  tree-shelters 
varies  with  the  kind  of  tree  employed  and  the  altitude  of 
the  plantation  ; the  higher  it  is  the  less  need  is  there  of 
shade. 

From  January  to  April,  and  earlier  on  higher  ground, 
the  seeds  or  berries  are  sown  ; the  seed-coffee  being  first 
well  washed  with  a mixture  of  water  and  ashes,  which 
removes  any  adherent  viscous  matter.  This  operation  is 
performed  in  a sort  of  sheltered  nursery  ; at  the  end  of 
the  rainy  season,  in  December,  when  the  young  seedlings 
thus  obtained  will  be  more  than  12  inches  in  height, 
they  are  removed,  with  the  roots  well  covered  with  earth, 
to  the  new  plantation,  there  to  be  replanted.  On  some 
plantations  the  planters  simply  make  use  of  the  seedlings 
which  spring  up  among  the  shrubs  from  fallen  coffee- 
berries.  All  that  remains  to  be  done  after  the  planting  is 
to  weed  very  carefully  among  the  shrubs,  and  on  low- 
lying  lands  to  lift  the  soil  carefully  with  the  patjol  once 
or  twice  a year  until  the  fourth  year.  Care  must  also 
be  taken  to  prevent  the  shrub  from  shooting  up  too 
rapidly. 

Two  or  three  years  after  planting  the  shrub  begins  to 
bear  fruit ; but  no  harvest  is  gathered  until  the  fifth  or 
sixth  year,  and  the  crop  is  most  abundant  only  towards 
the  fifteenth  year.  It  may  live  forty,  fifty,  or  sixty  years 
longer,  but  its  yield  gradually  decreases.  It  flowers  at 
the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season  ; seven  or  eight 
months  later  the  fruit  is  ripe.  It  is  of  a bright  red  colour, 
which  makes  the  plantations  a very  beautiful  sight. 

On  all  the  important  estates  the  coffee  is  to-day  pre- 
pared by  the  modern  process,  which  retains  the  aroma  of 
the  berry  while  giving  it  a good  polish.  The  berries  are 
freed  from  the  husk  or  pod  directly  after  the  harvest,  by 
means  of  revolving  cylinders,  which  are  turned  by  steam 
or  water-power.  The  berries  are  then  carefully  washed, 
dried  in  steam  drying-machines,  and  then  freed  from  the 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  223 


last  or  inner  husk  or  envelope,  and  winnowed  to  remove 
the  broken  husks. 

The  East  Indies,  next  to  Brazil,  produce  the  best 
coffee  and  the  largest  quantity.  They  furnish  one-fifth 
of  the  world’s  consumption,  and  the  value  of  the  harvest 
often  amounts  to  £ 2,500,000 . 

Coffee-planting  is  not  what  it  was  formerly — a certain 
source  of  wealth.  Competition  in  all  parts  of  the  world  1 
and  in  the  Indies  themselves  has  resulted  in  a lowering  of 
prices,  and  has  diminished  the  profits  by  dividing  them 
between  a larger  number  of  planters. 

Coffee,  moreover,  is  subject  to  a series  of  pests  and 
maladies.  One  of  these  pests,  the  Hemileia  vastatrix,  has 
practically  annihilated  the  coffee-plantations  of  Ceylon. 
This  is  an  orange-coloured  mould,  which  appears  on  the 
under  side  of  the  leaves,  causing  them  to  fall,  and  which 
blackens  and  kills  both  fruit  and  branches.  In  many 
cases  it  has  destroyed  large  plantations  in  a few  months. 
Hitherto  the  innumerable  remedies  attempted  have  been 
almost  useless  ; the  best  appears  to  be  to  smoke  the  tree 
thoroughly  in  order  to  increase  its  resistance  to  the 
plague. 

To  this  plague  we  must  add  “ the  black  blight,”  which 
blackens  stems  and  leaves  ; the  djamur  upas,  a poisonous 
agaric  or  fungus  which  kills  the  young  twigs  in  the 
course  of  a few  days  ; a microscopic  insect  which  pro- 
duces a disease  known  in  Holland  as  aaltjesziekte,  which 
destroys  the  roots,  as  do  also  two  beetles,  or  rather  their 
larvae  ; the  kuwnk,  or  larva  of  the  Exopholus  hypoleuca, 
and  the  uret,  or  larva  of  the  Lachnostera  ancyloniclia ; and 
finally  the  larva  of  an  insect,  known  as  the  kojfieborer 
or  “coffee-piercer”  as  its  name  denotes  : the  Hylotrichus 
quadrupes. 

On  account  of  all  these  enemies  to  production,  the 
cultivation  of  coffee  is  somewhat  on  the  decrease  in  Java. 

In  1895  the  compulsory  crops  amounted  to  318,829 

1 And  the  years  of  excessive  over-production  in  Brazil,  when  one 
year’s  crop  in  San  Paolo  greatly  exceeded  the  world’s  annual  con- 
sumption, thus  glutting  the  markets. — [Trans.] 


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piculs  (about  19,000  tons),  and  the  yield  of  the  free 
plantations  378,100  piculs  (about  23,000  tons).  In  1906 
the  figures  were  168,343  piculs  (10,000  tons),  and  318,185 
piculs  (19,500  tons)  ; in  1907  (a  particularly  bad  year) 
the  State  crop  was  30,702  piculs  (about  1,903  tons),  and 
the  “free”  crop  195,116  piculs  (12,000  tons).  In  1899, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  was  an  excellent  year  for  coffee, 
the  several  yields  were  198,708  piculs  (13,000  tons),  and 
552,040  piculs  (34,000  tons).  Nearly  all  the  Java  coffees 
are  exported  to  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam,  whence  they 
are  distributed  to  the  rest  of  Europe. 

France,  Austria,  North  America,  and  Singapore  are 
the  best  buyers  of  Javanese  coffee.1  Of  the  recent  total 
of  15,520  tons,  of  which  4,538  belonged  to  the  State, 
while  10,928  tons  were  “ free,”  France  received  588  tons, 
Austria  536,  America  4,061,  and  Singapore  2,214. 

II. 

If,  as  is  believed,  sugar-cane  was  imported  into  the 
East  Indies,  it  was  at  some  fairly  remote  period,  since  it 
had  been  already  acclimatised  for  four  centuries  when 
the  Europeans  landed.  However,  the  cultivation  of 
sugar-cane  became  systematic  only  in  1830,  when  it  was 
promoted  by  Van  den  Bosch.  His  system,  however,  was 
not  as  successful  as  one  might  have  expected.  The 
Government  practically  forced  private  persons  to  make 
sugar  under  somewhat  onerous  conditions  from  the  com- 
pulsory crops  of  cane ; this  sugar  it  sold.  Owing  to  a 
lack  of  technical  knowledge  and  an  insufficient  rate  of 
remuneration,  the  Government  was  unable  to  find  con- 
tractors who  would  undertake  the  industrial  preparation 
of  sugar  in  its  place,  and  principally  for  its  benefit,  and 
was  forced  to  fall  back  upon  a few  subordinate  officials 
and  Chinese  ; so  that  its  monoply  was  far  less  profitable 
than  was  anticipated,  precisely  on  account  of  its  strin- 
gency. The  sugar  industry  underwent  no  general  exten- 

1 Concerning  coffee  and  other  products,  see  Les  grandes  cultures 
dans  Vile  de  Java  (Leyden,  Brill,  1909,  fol.). 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  225 


sion  until  1877,  when  the  State  abandoned  its  monopoly 
to  a great  extent ; in  1880  it  abolished  it  altogether. 
From  that  date  free  labour,  supported  by  the  home 
capitalists,  began  to  cover  the  Dutch  Indies  with  planta- 
tions of  cane,  the  area  under  cane  to-day  exceeding 
200,000  acres.  The  majority  of  these  plantations  are  in 
the  north  of  Java. 

Two  unforeseen  events  occurred.  The  development 
in  Europe  of  the  beet-sugar  industry  and  the  disease 
known  as  sereh,  produced  by  a parasite,  caused  a crisis  in 
the  sugar  industry  during  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  beet-sugar  industry  caused  the  picul  of 
sugar  to  fall  from  16  florins  to  }\  ; the  disease  devoured 
entire  plantations.  The  colonists  faced  this  double  danger 
with  much  energy ; two  experimental  stations  were 
established  in  Java  1 for  the  purpose  of  determining  the 
species  of  cane  best  adapted  to  resist  disease  and  those 
richest  in  sugar,  and  of  deciding  what  chemical  fertilisers 
might  increase  these  two  qualities  ; as  a result  the  planters 
were  able  to  produce  more  sugar  from  a ton  of  cane,  to 
lower  their  prices,  and  to  survive  competition. 

The  species  cultivated  in  Java  are  numerous.  As  the 
result  of  experiments  with  the  Madagascar  cane,  and 
varieties  from  Borneo,  Mauritius,  and  the  Fijis,  the  black 
or  red-brown  cane  of  Cheribon  is  now  commonly  used  ; 
and  also  the  white  cane,  which  the  natives  prefer  because 
it  grows  more  profusely.  Both  are  cultivated  more 
particularly  in  the  sawahs,  and  more  rarely  on  dry  lands, 
for  the  drainage  and  irrigation  of  cane  requires  a great 
deal  of  care.  The  cane  is  usually  grown  from  shoots, 
which  are  planted  in  well-tilled  land ; although  since 
1887  attempts  have  been  made  to  raise  the  cane  from 
seed,  in  order  to  avoid  weakening  the  adult  cane  from 
which  the  shoots  are  taken,  and  so  decreasing  its  power 
of  resisting  disease.  These  experiments  appear  to  have 
been  attended  with  perfect  success  when  the  seed  of 

1 These  two  establishments  have  lately  been  incorporated  into 
one,  named  Het  proefstation  voor  de  Java-Suikerindustrie,  which  is 
situated  in  Samarang.  See  Regeerings  Almanak,  1909,  vol.  ii.  p.  541. 

16 


226 


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the  yellow  cane  of  Hawa'i  has  been  used.  Usually  the 
land  is  ploughed  in  March  or  April  ; the  cane  is  planted 
in  July,  and  before  planting  the  soil  must  be  thoroughly 
watered.  Both  before  and  after  planting  it  is  indispen- 
sable, if  a good  harvest  be  desired,  to  fatten  the  soil  with 
sulphite  of  ammonia  and  oil-cake — preferably  the  residue 
of  caraway  seed.  At  the  end  of  ten  or  fourteen  months 
in  the  plains,  or  eighteen  on  the  uplands,  the  cane  will 
have  reached  maturity.  The  cane  is  harvested  from  June 
to  October,  and  the  process  of  sugar-making  commences 
at  once  ; which  means  that  the  hands  employed  have  to 
work,  in  shifts,  day  and  night  for  three  months.  If  the 
planter  delays  when  once  the  cane  is  ripe  the  sap  loses 
both  quantity  and  quality.  The  cane  may  be  cut  or  up- 
rooted ; but  the  precaution  is  first  taken  of  cutting  off 
the  heads  of  the  plants,  in  order  that  they  may  serve  for 
a new  plantation. 

The  cane  is  crushed  in  the  neighbouring  factory  ; the 
dry  leaves  and  debris  serving  as  fuel  for  the  engine  which 
works  the  crushing-mill.  A bouw,  or  field  of  173  acres, 
yields  an  average  of  5 tons  of  cane,  but  will  sometimes  pro- 
duce twice  as  much.  Crushed  between  rollers  which  are 
rotated  by  steam-power,  the  cane  yields  from  65  to  70  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  in  sap  ; in  an  especially  well-equipped 
factory  the  proportion  may  be  as  high  as  80  per  cent. 

The  sap  first  flows  through  a filter,  and  is  then  purified 
by  saturating  it  with  lime.1  It  is  further  purified  by 
filtering  under  pressure,  and  then  boiled  in  a vacuum. 
The  sugar  thus  obtained  is  dried  in  centrifugal  separators, 
which  fling  off  the  molasses  or  crude  treacle.  It  is  then 
whitened  by  means  of  a fine  spray  of  water  or  dry  steam  ; 

1 Milk  of  lime  is  mixed  with  the  sap  to  neutralise  the  acids  in  the 
juice  ; clay,  finings,  and  sulphurous  acid  may  also  be  used  to  remove 
impurities.  These  coagulate,  and  either  sink  or  rise  to  the  surface. 
The  clarified  juice  is  run  through  filters — bag  filters  of  felt,  or  char- 
coal, or  capillary  filters  ; pressure  is  usually  employed  to  hasten  the 
operation.  In  vacuo  the  sugar  boils  at  about  150°  Fahr. ; a greater 
heat  discolours  the  product.  When  minute  crystals  commence  to 
form  in  the  vacuum,  pure  fresh  syrup  is  admitted,  and  the  resulting 
cake  is  treated  in  the  centrifugal  separators. — [Trans.] 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  227 


then,  after  being  dried  by  artificial  heat  or  sunlight,  it  is 
packed  in  baskets.  The  molasses  is  treated  in  centrifugal 
separators  to  save  the  sugar  still  contained  in  it,  or  is 
distilled  for  the  purpose  of  making  arack,  or  native  rum.1 

As  a rule,  the  maximum  yield  of  the  bouw,  or  field  of 
173  acres,  is  115  to  160  piculs  of  sugar;  or  from  4 to 
5*6  tons  per  acre.  Such  a result  can  only  be  obtained  by 
means  of  a perfected  modern  equipment,  which  is  very 
costly.  The  planters  of  Java,  however,  have  not  hesitated 
to  install  such  plant.  At  the  same  time  such  machinery 
is  not  within  the  reach  of  all,  so  that  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  number  of  factories  decreases  as  their  total  out- 
put increases. 

Thus  in  1895  there  were  195  sugar  factories  in  Java, 
yielding  9,454,441  piculs  (586,175  tons) ; in  1901  there 
were  185,  yielding  13,091,000  piculs  (811,666  tons);  in 
1907  there  were  177,  yielding  18,138,304  piculs  (1,124,570 
tons  metric). 

In  the  year  1907-1908  the  Dutch  East  Indies  exported 
a total  of  1,195,334  tons  of  sugar,  of  which  335,521  went 
to  British  India,  while  America  and  Hong-Kong  absorbed 
171,470  and  161,510  tons  respectively.  The  East  Indies 
hold  the  first  place  among  sugar-producing  countries  ; 
Java  by  itself  comes  immediately  after  Cuba.2 

In  addition  to  the  European  sugar  industry  there  is 
also  a native  industry.  The  natives  cultivate  the  white 
cane,  which  gives  a poor  yield,  but  requires  little  attention. 
Native  sugar,  which  is  of  course  an  inferior  product,  is 
known  as  gula  Jawa.  Certain  factories  in  Surabaja  have 
made  the  experiment  of  refining  the  native  sugars  in  order 
to  produce  from  it  a white  sugar.  With  the  sap  of  the 
sugar  or  toddy  palm,  the  Arenga  saccliarifera,  the  natives 

1 The  sap  of  the  sugar-cane  undergoes  very  rapid  fermentation 
once  it  is  expelled  from  the  cane. — [Trans.] 

2 The  Syndicate  General  of  the  sugar  manufacturers  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies  has  for  fourteen  years  published  an  Annual  which  gives 
full  details  of  their  industry,  and  a chart  showing  the  positions  of 
their  factories.  The  Annual  is  entitled,  Jaarboek  voor  Suikerfabrik- 
anten  op  Java,  1909-10  (Amsterdam,  J.  H.  de  Bussy,  1909,  8vo). 


228 


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still  prepare  little  flat  or  conical  cubes  of  brown  sugar, 
which  has  a nutty  flavour,  and  is  sold  very  cheaply ; and 
they  prepare  from  the  fermented  sap  of  the  same  palm 
the  alcoholic  liquor  known  as  tuwak,  the  abuse  of  which 
makes  the  Madurese  native  a somewhat  uncertain  char- 
acter. This  tree  also  yields  a vegetable  fibre  ( duk , idjuk), 
which  is  used  for  making  cordage  and  cheap  carpets. 
They  extract  a rather  poor  sugar  from  the  Nipa  fruticans , 
which  grows  in  the  marshes,  and  whose  leaves,  under  the 
name  of  atap,  they  use  to  thatch  their  houses. 

III. 

If  tobacco  is  not  unquestionably  native  in  the  East 
Indies — and  the  many  varieties  of  the  tobacco  plant 
found  there  seem  to  prove  that  it  is — it  has  at  least 
become  a general  necessity  to  the  native  population,  who 
smoke  it  rolled  in  a piece  of  maize-leaf,1  chew  it,  or  mix 
it  with  sirih.  In  Java  and  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
Archipelago,  and  in  Sumatra  notably,  there  are,  roughly 
speaking,  two  kinds  of  tobacco  grown  and  two  methods 
of  cultivation.  The  quality  of  the  two  kinds  is  very 
different,  but  the  cultivation  of  either  is  rapidly  spread- 
ing. One  kind  is  the  subject  of  the  native  trade ; the 
other  is  exported  to  Europe  and  America. 

Native  tobacco  is  grown  most  extensively  in  Kedu, 
Bagelein,  Pasuruan,  Pekalongan,  Rembang,  and  the 
Preangers.  It  is  grown  in  rotation  with  rice  in  the  drier 
districts ; it  is  not  treated  with  any  great  care,  either 
before  or  after  it  is  plucked  ; consequently  the  leaf  is 
small  and  the  aroma  displeasing  to  the  European  palate. 
It  is  dispatched  into  all  parts  of  the  island,  and  some  is 
exported  to  Singapore,  whence  it  is  exported  once  more 
to  such  parts  of  the  Archipelago  as  grow  no  tobacco : 
Amboin,  Borneo,  &c. 

Tobacco  of  the  European  quality  is  prepared  by  the 
natives,  according  to  the  methods  and  under  the  active 
supervision  of  Europeans.  It  is  grown  more  especially 

1 As  do  the  Brazilians,  this  being  their  form  of  the  cigarette.— [Tr.] 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  229 


in  the  centre  of  Java,  in  the  Vorstenlanden  and  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  island.  It  is  grown  from  the  sea- 
shore up  to  a height  of  over  6,000  feet  among  the  moun- 
tains ; the  best  and  the  most  easy  to  handle  is  found  in 
those  low-lying  lands  which  are  least  saturated  with 
moisture.  Such  lands,  which  from  time  to  time  are  well 
watered  by  the  rains,  are  the  best  of  all.  The  first 
essential,  in  growing  good  tobacco,  is  the  choice  of 
sound  seed  belonging  to  a good  variety.  Formerly  the 
kinds  apparently  indigenous  to  Java  were  planted,  but 
the  leaves  were  too  small  for  the  European  trade  ; the 
Dutch  variety,  with  larger  leaves,  rapidly  degenerated  ; 
the  Manilla  variety,  which  in  new  surroundings  acquired 
a totally  different  perfume  and  flavour,  retained  its 
flexibility,  and  has  been  largely  used,  though  less  largely 
than  the  Deli  (Sumatra)  tobacco.  To  obtain  the  best 
seed  the  planters  surround  a few  fine  plants  with  hedges, 
watch  carefully  over  the  ripening  of  the  pods,  which  are 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  when  the  capsules  open  the  released 
seeds  are  hermetically  sealed  in  bottles. 

They  are  sown  at  once,  mixed  with  wood  ashes,  in 
frames  with  adjustable  tops,  so  that  the  heat  and  light 
may  be  regulated.  The  period  of  germination  requires 
careful  supervision  ; at  the  outset  the  frames  must  be 
watered  twice  a day,  and  the  sun  must  not  shine  upon 
them  save  in  the  morning  ; but  gradually  a daily  water- 
ing suffices,  and  they  are  sheltered  from  the  sun  only  at 
midday. 

In  forty  or  fifty  days  the  seedlings  are  sufficiently 
grown  to  be  replanted  in  the  open  air  ; but  each  seedling 
is  sheltered  from  the  sun  by  means  of  a little  rice-straw, 
or  a large  leaf  turned  backwards  on  its  stem,  and  the 
watering  is  continued.  At  the  end  of  a fortnight  they 
are  uncovered,  and  the  soil  around  the  plants  is  lifted 
and  aired  by  means  of  the  patjol.  When  they  are  some 
12  inches  high  the  lower  leaves  are  removed,  and  the 
stems  are  twice  earthed  up.  Having  attained  their  full 
development,  the  buds  are  nipped  to  prevent  flowering. 
This  is  a delicate  operation  ; if  too  much  of  the  stalk  be 


230 


JAVA 


removed  the  leaves  become  thick  and  heavy  ; if  too  little, 
the  lower  leaves  are  starved.  After  this  pruning  process 
the  tobacco  is  left  to  ripen  for  two  weeks  longer.  If  a 
few  showers  fall  about  this  period,  so  much  the  better,  as 
the  rain  removes  the  oil  from  the  leaves  and  renders  them 
more  inflammable. 

At  the  end  of  from  sixty-five  to  eighty-six  days  the 
tobacco  is  ripe,  the  leaves  begin  to  droop,  and  they  are 
promptly  gathered,  being  plucked  one  by  one,  threaded 
on  strings,  and  tied  into  bundles  which  are  sent  to  the 
drying-chambers. 

A quicker  method  consists  in  cutting  the  plant  down 
at  the  level  of  the  soil  and  hanging  it  in  the  drying- 
chamber  in  that  condition  ; but  as  the  lower  leaves  are 
of  greater  value  than  the  rest  these  should  be  carefully 
plucked  by  hand.  In  the  great  bamboo  drying-rooms 
the  tobacco  is  left  hanging  from  laths  and  kept  from 
the  light  for  thirty  or  forty  days  ; the  leaves  are  then 
arranged  in  bundles  of  forty  to  fifty,  according  to  their 
length,  colour,  and  thickness,  and  are  then  taken  to  the 
fermentation  sheds.  In  these  sheds,  which  are  nearly 
always  of  stone,  roofed  with  galvanised  iron,  the  tobacco 
undergoes  the  last  stages  of  its  preparation  : fermenta- 
tion, sorting,  and  compression  into  bales.  Fermentation 
is  induced  by  placing  the  tobacco  in  piles  upon  a plank 
of  wood.  As  the  fermentation  is  very  lively  at  the  outset, 
these  piles  contain  only  5 lb.  or  10  lb.  of  tobacco  to  begin 
with  ; but  towards  the  end  of  the  process  they  amount  to 
60  lb.  or  80  lb..  A thermometer  protected  by  a sheath  of 
bamboo  is  often  inserted  in  the  fermenting  heap,  in  order 
to  indicate  the  exact  temperature,  so  that  fermentation 
may  be  checked  at  the  right  moment ; for  it  is  possible 
for  the  leaves  to  grow  so  hot  in  a single  day  as  to  burst 
into  flames.  When  the  temperature  of  the  fermenting 
heap  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  air  in  the  fermenting 
chamber  the  process  of  fermentation  is  over,  and  the 
piles  are  demolished,  the  leaves  re-sorted,  and  made  up 
into  bales  of  165  lb.  to  220  lb.,  which  are  sewn  up  in  mat- 
ting and  exported,  chiefly  to  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam. 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  231 


All  these  processes,  demanding  the  most  precise  and 
minute  attention,  require  the  supervision  of  Europeans, 
so  long  as  the  Javanese  themselves  remain  insensible  to 
the  large  profits  which  they  themselves  might  draw  from 
the  improvement  of  their  own  methods.1 

In  1895,  9,807  tons  of  tobacco  were  exported  from 
Java  to  Europe.  The  increase  in  production  has  since 
then  been  constant ; in  1907,  a particularly  good  year,  it 
amounted  to  37,892  tons. 

With  the  development  of  the  native  tobacco  trade 
and  the  increasing  production  of  tobacco  in  Sumatra, 
and  also  in  certain  parts  of  Borneo,  the  exports  have 
reached  the  total  figure  of  69,489  tons,  the  value  being 
approximately  .£2,645,835  for  Java,  and  .£3,250,000  for 
Sumatra. 


IV. 

Tea  constitutes  a smaller  but  very  appreciable  source 
of  revenue  for  the  East  Indies,  which  are  among  the 
great  tea-producing  countries.  The  tea-plant  does  best 
at  a height  of  1,500  to  1,800  feet,  but  may  be  grown  at 
all  altitudes  from  480  to  3,200  feet,  provided  the  soil  is 
clayey,  rich  in  organic  matter,  and  well  drained.  Until 
1890  only  Chinese  Lea  was  planted  in  Java  ; to-day  it  is 
being  everywhere  replaced  by  Assam  tea,  and  other  hybrid 
varieties  which  partake  both  of  the  Assam  and  the 
Chinese  varieties.  Assam  tea,  while  much  hardier  than 
Chinese,  is  also  more  profusely  leaved.  The  Preangers, 
Batavia,  Kedu,  and  Pekalongan  are  the  best  tea-growing 
provinces  in  Java  ; the  Preangers  alone  furnishing  more 
than  all  the  rest  put  together. 

The  tea-plant  is  reproduced  by  seed.  The  seed,  having 
been  gathered  at  maturity,  when  the  capsule  opens  to 
allow  the  seed  to  escape,  is  sown  in  beds  and  trans- 
planted, or  in  the  open  and  in  situ , at  a depth  of  an  inch 
and  a quarter  or  two  inches.  If  the  seeds  are  fresh  they 
should  germinate  in  a ratio  of  two  in  three ; otherwise 

1 See  O.  J.  A.  Collet,  Le  tabac,  sa  culture  et  son  exploitation  dans  les 
regions  tropicales.  Le  tabac  a Sumatra  (Brussels,  1903,  large  8vo). 


232 


JAVA 


only  a quarter  to  a tenth  will  come  up.  Some  planters 
take  the  precaution  of  allowing  the  seeds  to  germinate  in 
a layer  of  mould,  planting  them  only  when  they  have 
begun  to  germinate. 

As  the  soil  must  lie  lightly  about  the  shrubs,  the  planta- 
tion must  be  dug  over  two  or  three  times  a year,  and 
weeded  once  a month.  In  the  third  or  fourth  year 
trenches  are  dug  between  the  shrubs,  measuring  some 
io  feet  long  by  12  inches  wide  by  6 deep,  in  order  to  air 
the  roots.  The  young  shrubs  must  also  be  plentifully 
smoked.  The  crop  may  be  gathered  in  the  third  or 
fourth  year.  The  first  yield  is  always  scanty,  but  the 
succeeding  crops  are  more  and  more  plentiful,  and  well- 
tended  shrubs  produce  almost  indefinitely.  They  are 
closely  pruned  once  a year  to  prevent  them  from  flower- 
ing ; although  at  high  altitudes  a pruning  every  second 
or  third  year  is  sufficient.  The  same  shrub  will  yield 
yellow  tea,  black  tea,  and  a number  of  different  qualities 
of  tea  ; the  two  leaves  at  the  tip  of  each  twig  furnish 
Orange  Pekoe,  the  finest  of  all,  whether  green  or  black — 
the  colour  depends  upon  the  after-treatment ; the  lower 
leaves  make  their  appearance  as  Souchong  ; the  lowest  of 
all  are  sold  as  Congo.1 

Green  tea  is  obtained  by  drying  the  newly-plucked 
leaves  at  once  upon  heated  iron  plates  ; so  as  to  prevent 
the  fermentation  and  oxidisation  which  turn  the  leaf  black. 
To  obtain  black  tea  the  leaves  are  first  scattered  and  ex- 
posed to  the  air,  when  they  shrivel  and  curl  up  ; they  are 
then  rolled  and  bruised  several  times  in  roller-machines, 
for  ten  or  twelve  minutes  each  time  ; they  are  then  placed 
in  flat  bamboo  baskets  or  trays,  to  ferment  and  oxidise  by 
contact  with  the  air,  and  finally  go  to  the  drying-machine.2 

1 Concerning  tea,  see  H.  Neuville,  Technologic  du  the.  Composition 
chimique  de  la  feuille.  Recolte  et  manipulation.  Procedes  europeens. 
Procedes  asiatiques  (Paris,  1905,  large  8vo). 

2 The  usual  form  of  drying-machine  consists  of  a series  of  metal 
drawers  with  perforated  bottoms,  which  slide  into  an  iron  frame  or 
chest.  Hot  air  is  drawn  or  driven  up  or  down  through  the  whole. — 
[Trans.] 


JAVANESE  TEA-PLANTATION. 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  233 


Tea-planting  has  been  in  a state  of  continual  expansion 
in  the  Dutch  Indies  since  1865,  when  the  State  renounced 
its  monopoly.  In  1907  the  crop  amounted  to  11,494  tons. 

V. 

The  trade  in  quinine  is  as  vigorous  and  valuable  as 
that  in  tea.  This  precious  tree,  according  to  Junghuhn, 
was  introduced  in  1854,  from  Callao,  by  the  botanist, 
Justus  Karl  Hasskarl,  after  a long  and  perilous  voyage. 
The  forty-eight  trees  which  were  still  in  a healthy  condi- 
tion when  Java  was  reached  were  immediately  replanted 
in  the  garden  of  Tjibodas,  at  a height  of  nearly  5,000 
feet  above  sea-level,  by  the  famous  botanist-gardener, 
Teysmann. 

The  experiment  was  so  completely  successful  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  cinchona-tree  was  rapidly  taken  up 
throughout  the  Preangers,  and  then  in  the  centre  of  Java. 
After  a great  many  experiments  the  Buitenzorg  laboratory 
discovered  that  the  species  Calysaya,  imported  from 
South  America  in  1865,  thanks  to  the  tenacity  of  the 
merchant  Ledger,  was  far  richer  in  quinine  than  any 
other  variety.  Since  then  Cinchona  ledgeriana  has  been 
planted  everywhere,  and  a certain  number  of  Officinalis 
and  Succirubra  imported  from  Ceylon  ; a limited  number, 
because  these  two  species  are  valued  more  especially  for 
the  bark,  as  sold  and  compounded  by  the  pharmacist ; 
and  the  demand  for  this  bark  being  limited,  the  planters 
have  only  planted  it  in  proportion  to  the  commercial 
demand.  It  is  becoming  more  and  more  usual  to  graft 
Ledgeriana  with  Succirubra , without  which  precaution  it 
grows  more  slowly  and  offers  less  resistance  to  disease. 
The  cinchona,  indeed,  is  subject  to  many  complaints ; 
sometimes  a fungus  will  rot  the  roots,  and  nothing 
remains  but  to  burn  the  trees  attacked  and  disinfect 
the  soil  wherein  they  grew  ; sometimes  a blight  or  rust 
attacks  the  branches,  which  must  be  lopped  and  burned  ; 
sometimes  a more  dangerous  pest,  the  Helopaltis  Bradii, 
pierces  the  leaves  and  the  young  branches,  sucks  the  sap 


234 


JAVA 


and  kills  the  shrub  ; and  so  far  no  one  has  found  any 
better  remedy  than  to  burn  the  insect  and  its  victim. 

The  cinchona  is  generally  reproduced  by  seed,  and 
is  grown  in  a nursery  and  transplated  as  soon  as  the 
young  tree  is  about  3 feet  high.  It  requires  much 
the  same  treatment  as  coffee.  From  the  time  the  trees 
are  four  years  old  a small  crop  may  be  obtained  by 
pruning  the  tree,  which  process  may  be  repeated  until 
maturity.  From  the  sixth  or  eighth  year  the  plantation 
yields  a good  harvest,  which  may  be  obtained  in  four 
ways : by  uprooting  the  tree  ; by  cutting  it  down  to  the 
level  of  the  soil ; by  removing  longitudinal  strips  of  bark, 
as  is  done  in  the  case  of  the  cork-tree,  so  that  the  bark 
can  grow  again  ; by  removing  the  bark  with  a plane 
or  shaving-iron  down  to  the  cambium  only,  only  re- 
moving the  second  half  when  the  first  has  regrown.  The 
tree  is  never  peeled  with  a steel  knife,  which  would  spoil 
and  discolour  the  bark,  but  with  a knife  of  horn  or  bamboo. 

The  bark  is  then  dried  in  the  sun,  or  by  artificial  heat 
in  special  appliances.  It  is  then  sorted  and  put  up  into 
bales  ; an  operation  which  requires  great  care,  as  the 
qualities  intended  for  the  manufacture  of  quinine  must 
not  be  mixed  with  those  intended  for  pharmaceutical 
preparations — extracts  and  tinctures  of  cinchona  and 
cinchona  wine.  In  ten  years  the  production  of  cinchona 
has  almost  trebled ; in  1907  it  amounted  to  8,985 
tons.1 

Cinchona  is  grown  upon  ninety-three  leasehold  planta- 
tions, seven  Government  estates,  and  five  private  freehold 
plantations.  Javanese  cinchona  has  lately  profited  by  the 
failure  of  the  Cingalese  article.  The  bark  is  sent  to 
Amsterdam,  and  thence  distributed  throughout  Europe, 
or  sometimes  directly  to  England,  which  buys  a great 
quantity. 

1 In  virtue  of  a convention  with  the  Government  the  Bandung 
factory  is  entrusted,  from  December  31,  1904,  to  transform  into  sul- 
phate of  quinine,  destined  to  be  sold  in  the  Batavia  market,  a portion 
of  the  cinchona  bark  gathered  in  the  official  plantations  of  the 
Preangers. 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  235 


The  manufacture  of  the  sulphate  of  quinine,  which  has 
developed  with  great  rapidity,  has  its  centre  at  Bandung, 
where  the  Bandoengsche  Kininefabriek  is  situated.  The 
manufacturers  are  not  only  attempting,  by  acquiring 
the  bark  from  all  the  Javanese  plantations,  to  keep  the 
greater  part  of  the  European  trade  in  their  own  hands, 
but  also  to  compete  with  the  trade  of  the  Far  East : 
of  China,  Japan,  the  Philippines,  the  English  and  French 
Asiatic  colonies  and  possessions,  and  even  of  Australia.1 

As  soon  as  a consignment  of  cinchona  arrives  the 
Kininefabriek  extracts  quinine  from  three  samples  of  the 
bark.  One  sample  is  required  to  determine  the  richness 
of  the  bark  in  quinine,  one  is  sent  to  the  planter,  and 
one  put  by  for  reference.  The  Company  does  not  buy 
cinchona  at  its  own  risk ; it  simply  undertakes  to  manipu- 
late it  for  the  planters  and  to  find  a market  for  the  result- 
ing products.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  profits  are 
divided  proportionately  between  the  planters,  with  the 
exception  of  a certain  sum  to  cover  the  Company’s 
expenses  and  yield  it  a net  profit. 

Equipped  for  a capacity  of  some  3 cwt.  of  sulphate  of 
quinine  daily,  the  Bandung  Company  has  been  enlarging 
its  factory  and  laying  down  plant  for  producing  other 
salts  of  quinine,  such  as  chlorohydrate,  bromo- 
hydrate,  &c.2 


1 The  State  grows  cinchona  on  its  own  account  in  the  Residency 
of  the  Preangers.  The  results  of  this  industry — the  Gouvernemenls- 
kinaonder nettling — were  published  quarterly  in  the  Javasche  Courant. 
Upon  addressing  their  request  to  the  Director  of  Agriculture, 
botanists,  scientific  institutions,  and  foreign  Governments,  through 
the  medium  of  their  diplomatic  representatives,  obtain  free  of  cost 
small  quantities  of  bark  or  cuttings  of  cinchona. 

2 Concerning  quinine  and  its  introduction  to  the  Dutch  Indies,  see 
C.  R.  Markham,  “ Travels  in  Peru  and  India  while  superintending 
the  collection  of  Cinchona  plants  and  seeds  in  South  America  and 
their  introduction  into  India”  (London,  1862,  8vo). — K.  W.  van 
Gorkom,  Die  China  cultur  auf  Java  (Leipzig,  1879,  8vo) ; and  the 
same  writer’s  Kinologische  Schetsen  (Amsterdam,  1892,  8vo). — E. 
Prud’homme,  Le  quinquina.  Culture,  preparation,  commerce  (Paris, 
1902,  large  8vo). 


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VI. 

Indigo  is  one  of  the  products  of  which  the  State 
renounced  its  monopoly,  partially  in  1854  and  wholly 
in  1865  ; not  without  loss,  for  at  that  time  the  indigo 
industry  was  one  of  the  most  profitable  and  most  widely 
developed  in  the  Dutch  Indies.  Introduced  perhaps 
by  the  Hindus,  and  certainly  first  prepared  by  them,  as 
its  name  would  seem  to  indicate  (in  Malay,  Javanese, 
Sundanese,  and  Macassar  nila  = the  Sanscrit  nila , or 
“ deep  blue  ”),  the  indigo  trade  was  already  flourishing 
when  the  Portuguese  and  the  Dutch  first  arrived.  The 
natives  were  using  it  largely  in  dyeing,  or  batiking,  their 
cloths  ; even  to-day  they  cultivate  more  than  50,000  acres. 

The  cultivation  and  preparation  of  indigo  was  one  of 
the  industries  which  Van  den  Bosch  was  most  anxious 
to  develop,  and  one  from  which  the  natives  appear  to 
have  suffered  most  severely.  To-day,  in  addition  to  the 
native  industry,  which  is  carried  on  more  especially  to 
supply  local  needs,  European  planters  have  devoted  some 
50,000  acres  to  the  cultivation  of  indigo,  this  area  being 
distributed  throughout  the  provinces  of  Batavia,  Peka- 
longan,  Kediri,  Surakarta,  and  Djokjakarta.  The  indigo 
of  Djokjakarta,  and  particularly  that  of  Surakarta,  where 
the  land  is  let  on  lease  by  the  East  Indian  Government, 
is  by  far  the  most  valued  in  Europe,  and  makes  three- 
quarters  of  the  total  yield. 

The  species  of  indigo  cultivated  in  Java  for  the 
European  market  are  the  Guatemala  1 and  the  Natal  2 
varieties.  The  indigo  plant,  whose  reddish,  oblong  leaves 
yield  the  colouring  matter,  grows  best  in  the  sawahs  and 
on  irrigable  soil,  in  alternation  with  rice,  or  sometimes 
with  sugar-cane.  When  the  soil  has  been  ploughed  and 

1 Indigofera  iinctoria  L.,  /.  pseudotindoria,  I.  oligosperma  D.C.  : 
in  Javanese,  tom  Presi,  or  Persian  indigo. 

2 Indigofera  leptostachya  D.C. — Javanese  tom  Natal.  Another  kind 
of  indigo  produced  in  Java,  whence  the  kind  known  in  Malay  as 
tarum  kembang  probably  derives,  is  furnished  by  Indigofera  anil  L. 
Its  Javanese  name  is  tjanlik. 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  237 


manured  the  seeds  are  sown  in  frames,  and  the  young 
plants  are  transplanted  as  soon  as  they  are  of  suitable 
size.  In  five  or  six  months  the  plant  is  fully  developed  ; 
its  perfect  maturity  is  announced  by  the  flowering  season. 
The  bush  is  then  earthed-up,  and  a first  harvest  gathered ; 
three  months  after  a second  crop  of  leaves  is  ready  for 
removal,  and  this  second  harvest  is  far  superior  to  the 
first.  It  is  sometimes  followed  by  a third  and  fourth,  if 
the  bush  be  rich  in  leaves. 

The  leafy  stalks,  tied  into  bundles,  are  placed  in  tanks 
for  the  process  of  fermentation,  which  should  last  from 
four  to  six  hours.  A long  experience  is  necessary  before 
the  watcher  can  divine  when  the  fermentation  has  reached 
the  correct  stage. 

The  greenish-yellow  water  which  is  drawn  off  from 
the  fermentation  tanks  flows  into  the  threshing  tanks, 
in  which  the  indigo  becomes  precipitated.  It  is  sub- 
jected to  a process  of  clarification  which  lasts  for  two 
or  three  hours  ; it  is  then  filtered,  an  operation  requiring 
five  or  six  hours  ; then  the  paste,  or  sludge,  of  indigo 
is  mixed  with  a definite  quantity  of  water,  and  is  boiled 
with  the  greatest  precautions  against  burning.  A second 
filtration  leaves  the  product  in  such  a state  that  it  may 
be  pressed  to  expel  the  residue  of  water.  It  then  only 
remains  to  cut  it  into  tablets,  which  should  be  left 
twenty-five  days  to  dry.  They  are  then  polished,  to 
remove  any  suspicion  of  mould  and  to  give  them  a 
beautiful  brilliant  purple  colour. 

The  indigo  market  for  Java  is  at  Samarang  ; the 
European  entrepots  are  at  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam ; 
but  a considerable  quantity  of  the  indigo  bought  by 
France — which  is,  with  Germany  and  Russia,  one  of 
the  best  customers  for  this  product — goes  directly  to 
Havre  and  Marseilles. 

The  discovery  of  artificial  indigo  has,  of  course,  been 
a blow  to  the  industry,  which,  in  Java  at  least,  is  relying 
more  and  more  upon  the  Far  Eastern  market,  and 
especially  upon  Japan.  But  after  reaching  the  value  of 
£330,000  or  more  in  1898  (the  yield  being  1,094  tons), 


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its  total  production  has  fallen  to  289  tons  in  1906  and 
144  tons  in  1907.  The  industry  seems  on  the  road  to 
extinction  ; a matter  to  be  regretted,  since  agricultural 
labour  is  more  healthy  and  usually  furnishes  products 
of  superior  quality,  if  more  expensive,  than  industrial 
labour.1 


VII. 

Among  the  smaller  agricultural  industries  of  Java,  we 
must  not  omit  to  mention  pepper  and  the  valuable  spices 
which  long  ago  were  an  inexhaustible  treasury  for  the 
Dutch.  To-day  Java  produces  some  3,863  piculs  of 
prepared  pepper  (about  238  tons)  and  625  piculs  (38  tons) 
of  mace.  Cinnamon  is  no  longer  produced  for  exporta- 
tion ; cotton  and  kapok  are  not  sufficient  for  local 
necessities,  although  the  latter  has  been  produced  in 
unusual  quantities  during  the  last  few  years.  Cocoa,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  done  extremely  well ; its  cultivation 
has  spread  rapidly  in  Samarang,  Pasuruan,  Besuki,  Peka- 
longan,  and  Surakarta  ; in  1907  the  yield  amounted  to 
1,380  tons,  having  almost  doubled  in  ten  years.2  The 
cocoa-palm  was  imported  from  America. 

The  cultivation  of  the  opium  poppy  is  forbidden  in  the 
Dutch  Indies,  the  State,  as  in  French  Indo-China,  having 
reserved  for  itself  the  lucrative  and  immoral  monopoly  of 
this  dangerous  drug,  in  order  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  the  natives,  and  also  to  draw  a large  revenue  from 
the  noxious  habit  of  opium-eating  and  smoking. 

The  sale  of  opium  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese,  to 
whom  it  is  leased,  has  been  productive  of  such  abuses 
that  the  Dutch  Government  has  inaugurated  the  system 
of  regie,  upon  the  model  of  that  employed  in  French 
Indo-China  ; and  this  system,  first  installed  in  Madura, 

1 Concerning  indigo,  see  Dr.  G.  von  Georgievics,  Der  Indigo  vom 
praktischen  mid  iheorelischern  Slandpunkt  dargestellt  (Leipzig-Vienna, 
1892,  8vo). 

2 Concerning  cocoa,  see  A.  Fauchere’s  Culture  pratique  du  cacaoyer 
et  preparation  du  cacao  (Paris,  1906,  large  8vo). 


AGRICULTURE:  VARIOUS  CROPS  239 


Surabaja,  Pasuruan,  Probolinggo,  and  Besuki,  where  it 
has  given  good  results,  has  been  gradually  extended.  In 
1901  the  State  built  in  Batavia  a factory  ( Fabrick  der 
Opiumregie)  large  enough  to  furnish  all  Java  with 
opium. 


CHAPTER  XII 


FORESTS  AND  MINES.  INDUSTRY.  COMMERCE. 

I.  The  forests  of  djati  and  of  “natural  woods.” — II.  The  mines  of 
Java  ; the  mining  system  ; petroleum. — III.  Salt. — IV.  Indus- 
tries : their  character ; the  industrial  future  of  Java. — V. 
Institutions  of  credit  and  thrift. — VI.  Internal  trade  and  the 
means  of  transport  and  communication  : roads,  railways, 
rivers;  steamer  services  between  the  various  islands  of  the 
Archipelago. — The  merchant  marine  of  the  Archipelago. — 
VII.  Post  and  telegraphs. — VIII.  Weights  and  measures.  The 
monetary  system. — IX.  The  export  trade  ; customs,  transport. 


I. 

Java,  and  indeed  the  whole  Archipelago,  possesses  a 
remarkable  wealth  of  native  vegetation.  The  bamboo, 
the  areca-nut,  the  rattan-palm,  the  coco-palm,  the 
banana,  the  breadfruit-tree,  and  a host  of  other  palms, 
multiply  with  a fierce  and  vigorous  growth.  The  native 
has  had  little  ado  in  finding  among  them  nearly  all  the 
necessities  of  his  daily  life.  The  forests  properly  so- 
called,  which  are  wonderfully  rich  in  species,  have  for  a 
long  time  been  neglected  ; whence  a deforestation  in 
some  parts  so  unreasonable  that  the  Dutch  Government 
has  finally  moved  in  the  matter.  It  discovered,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  that  certain  forests, 
containing  most  valuable  products,  deserved  a better  fate 
than  unchecked  destruction.  In  1869  the  first  Afforesta- 
tion Act  was  passed ; since  then  it  has  been  fittingly 
improved  and  enlarged  ; but  so  far  the  Government  has 
not  contemplated  the  extension  of  its  prohibitions  beyond 
Java  and  Madura.  The  State  concerns  itself  very  little, 

340 


FORESTS  AND  MINES 


241 


even  in  the  latter,  with  the  “ forests  of  natural  woods  ” — 
literally  wild  woods  ( wildlioutbosschen ) — and  gives  nearly 
all  its  attention  to  the  preservation  of  the  precious  teak 
forests  ( djatibosschen ),  of  which  it  reserves  the  monopoly. 
Certain  of  these  forests  have  been  leased  to  private 
undertakings,  which  are  strictly  supervised  ; others  are 
administered  by  the  Residents. 

Teak,  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  is  the  wood  principally 
used  for  ship-building  and  all  kinds  of  permanent  struc- 
tures. The  odour  of  its  natural  oil  keeps  off  the  terrible 
termite,  and  even  the  teredo  has  the  greatest  trouble  in 
piercing  it.  There  are  many  varieties  of  teak,  of  various 
colours  and  qualities : thorny  teak,  flowering  teak,  oily 
teak,  limestone  teak,  and  above  all  the  gimbal  (gembel) 
teak,  which  is  brown  and  greasy  to  the  touch,  and  is 
preferred  before  all  others  for  ship-building. 

Cultivated  teak  is  valued  far  above  the  wild  or  natural 
timber.  In  1907  the  area  of  the  teak-forests  of  Java  and 
Madura  was  1,665,000  acres ; this  area  the  Government 
is  doing  its  utmost  to  increase,  planting  teak  wherever 
there  is  a waste  or  fallow  piece  of  land,  along  the 
wayside,  &c. 

At  regular  intervals  the  Government  proceeds,  at  the 
seats  of  the  Residencies,  to  lease  its  teak  forests  in  sections 
of  250  to  990  acres  ; occasionally,  but  rarely,  as  much  as 
9,880  acres  is  leased.  After  a forest  inspector  has  esti- 
mated the  quantity  of  timber  to  be  felled  each  year,  the 
section  is  leased,  for  a term  varying  from  two  to  ten 
years,  for  an  annual  royalty  of  13  to  20  florins  per  cubic 
metre  (about  £1  to  £1  12s.  per  cubic  yard).  The  prin- 
cipal leaseholders  are  the  Chinese,  but  two  of  the  Dutch 
companies,  the  Javasche  Boschexploitatie  Maatschappij 
and  the  Nederlandsch  Indische  Houtaankap  Maaiscliappij 
are  large  and  important  enterprises. 

In  1907  the  Dutch  Government  derived  from  its  forests 
(the  sale  of  “wild  woods”  being  included)  a net  profit 
of  nearly  £200,000. 

Ebony — in  great  demand  in  France  and  China — and 
sandal-  or  santal-wood,  for  which  the  best  customer  is 

!7 


242 


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Germany ; eagle  wood  and  laka  wood  ( Mynistica  iners  ?), 
which  is  exported  chiefly  to  Singapore,  and  iron-wood, 
are  the  most  valuable  of  the  woods  found  in  the  ‘‘wild 
woods,”  the  supervision  and  extension  of  which  will  one 
day  assure  the  Dutch  Indies  of  a large  yearly  revenue.1 

II. 

The  State  monopolies  include  not  only  the  forests,  but 
to  a certain  extent  the  mines  and  the  production  of  salt. 

Legislation  concerning  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  Indies 
is  of  quite  recent  date,  although  certain  mines  were 
exploited  long  before  the  advent  of  Europeans.  It  was 
only  in  1895  that  a mining  law  was  promulgated  in 
Holland ; but  this  law,  we  must  admit,  was  sufficiently 
autocratic.  The  State  arrogates  by  law  the  possession  of 
the  entire  subsoil  of  the  Indies  ; the  landowner  who 
discovers  a mine  upon  his  property  cannot  become  the 
owner,  but  only  the  concessionaire.  He  cannot  prospect 
without  permission,  still  less  work  the  mine  upon  his 
own  initiative. 

A permit  for  research  or  prospecting  is  given  for  three 
years.  This  may  be  prolonged  by  a maximum  period  of 
two  years  ; never  more.  Work  must  be  commenced  the 
first  year,  and  the  first  applicant  obtains  the  preference. 
The  mining  concession,  which  may  be  renewed  in- 
definitely every  seventy-five  years,  is  only  granted  if  the 
mineral  sought  for  lies  actually  within  the  limits  of  the 
ground  for  which  the  permit  is  issued,  and  if  its 
exploitation  is  technically  practicable. 

The  State  imposes  a fixed  tax  of  50  cents  (equal 
to  iod.)  per  hectare,  or  rather  less  than  2d.  per  acre, 
and  4 per  cent,  on  the  gross  yield  of  the  mine.  The 
prospector's  permit  is  subject  to  an  annual  tax  of  5 cents 
per  hectare — a little  less  than  a halfpenny  per  acre. 

The  products  of  prospecting  may  be  disposed  of 
without  restriction  up  to  a maximum  which  varies 

1 See  Serre’s  L’ exploitation  de  forets  de  teck  el  auires  bois  a Java 
in  L’ Agriculture  de  pays  chauds,  1906,  pp.  422-430. 


FORESTS  AND  MINES 


243 


according  to  the  mineral  in  question.  Above  this  the 
royalty  of  4 per  cent,  upon  the  gross  yield  becomes 
payable. 

Having  the  capital  of  Holland  behind  it,  and  being 
by  no  means  anxious  to  establish  powerful  foreign 
companies  within  its  empire,  the  Government  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  grants  prospectors'  permits  only  to 
Dutchmen  and  to  foreigners  who  have  been  domiciled 
for  a certain  period  in  Holland  or  the  Dutch  East 
Indies.  The  majority  of  the  members  of  the  board  of 
every  mining  company  must  be  Dutchmen  or  domiciled 
in  the  Indies.  The  concessionaire,  if  he  does  not  reside 
in  the  Indies,  must  have  a duly  accredited  representative, 
and  the  company  must  give  proof  of  a sufficient  financial 
capacity. 

Java,  from  the  miner’s  point  of  view,  is  infinitely 
poorer  than  Sumatra  and  Borneo,  and  the  Riouw 
Archipelago  ; it  produces  only  petroleum,  a little  iodide 
of  copper,  and  manganese.  The  yield  of  petroleum — 
which  is  found  in  Samarang,  Rembang,  and  Surabaja — 
amounted  to  27,697,340  gallons  in  1907  ; of  iodide  of 
copper  some  28  tons  were  produced  in  Samarang;  and 
of  manganese,  which  is  confined  to  Djokjakarta,  4*5  tons 
were  produced.1 

Javanese  petroleum  is  in  the  hands  of  a score  of 
companies,  the  most  important  being  the  Industrial 
Petroleum  Company  of  Dordrecht  ( Dortsche  Petroleum- 
Industries-Maatschappij),  which  has  a working  capital 
of  12,000,000  florins. 

The  capitalists  of  Holland  are  taking  a great  interest 
in  the  development  of  the  petroleum  industry  in  the 
Dutch  Indies ; they  have  invested  very  large  sums  in 
order  to  fight  more  efficaciously  against  the  competition 
of  America  and  Russia.  It  is  indubitable  that  the 
petroleum  fields  of  Java  constitute  an  enormous  source 
of  wealth,  and  that  they  are  gradually  capturing  the 

1 See  J.  G.  Bousquet’s  Les  richesses  minerales  des  hides  orientates 
neerlandaises  in  the  Memoires  el  compte  rendu  des  trav.  de  la  Societe 
des  Ingen.  civil,  de  France  (Paris,  1907,  8vo  ; pp.  436  el  seq.). 


244 


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markets  of  the  Far  East,  of  India,  Indo-China,  China, 
Japan,  and  the  Philippines. 

III. 

The  preparation  of  salt,  obtained  from  the  saline 
springs  which  abound  all  over  Java — there  are  15 1 in 
the  Regency  of  the  Preangers  alone — or  from  sea-water, 
is  monopolised  by  the  Government.  Certain  springs, 
such  as  those  of  Tji  Ampel  in  the  district  of  Krawang, 
yield  a brine  which  is  estimated  to  contain  nearly  3 per 
cent,  of  salt.  The  natives,  who  are  exclusively  employed 
in  the  preparation  of  salt,  often  evaporate  the  saline  water 
in  great  iron  cauldrons,  or  kuwalis  ; sometimes,  as  in  the 
district  of  Kradenan  in  Samarang,  they  first  of  all  con- 
centrate it  in  oblong  tanks  or  wells,  7 or  8 feet 
wide,  a trifle  over  3 feet  deep,  and  30  feet  long. 
These  two  methods  of  preparation  may  be  undertaken 
by  the  natives  upon  payment  of  an  annual  royalty  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  produced. 

In  Madura  the  Government  undertakes  on  its  own 
behalf  the  manufacture  of  salt  by  European  methods 
from  sea-water,  which  is  allowed,  at  high  tide,  to  flow 
into  a system  of  little  locks  or  sluices,  to  enter  a series  of 
salt-pans,  and  deposit  its  salt  by  evaporation. 

In  1907  the  State  sold  1,390,738  piculs  of  salt,  produced 
in  Java  and  Madura,  for  9,622,033  florins,  or  ^801,836. 

IV. 

The  industries  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  with  the 
exception  of  native  specialities  of  purely  local  interest — 
pottery,  coppersmith's  work,  basket-making,  the  forging 
of  kreeses,  the  designing  of  batik  sarongs,  handkerchiefs, 
&c. — are  still  little  more  than  a dependency  of  agricul- 
ture. The  factories  now  built,  or  being  built,  in  Java 
serve  almost  exclusively  for  the  preparation  of  natural 
products  : rice,  coffee,  sugar,  tea,  tobacco,  quinine, 
indigo,  &c.  A few  saw-mills  and  printing-works,  soap, 


FORESTS  AND  MINES 


245 


ice,  and  mineral-water  factories,  can  only  be  regarded 
as  interesting  experiments ; their  scope  is  as  yet  too 
limited  to  allow  us  to  predict  a brilliant  future  for 
Javanese  industries. 

The  silk  industry  has  hitherto  yielded  appreciable 
results  only  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese. 

The  climate  of  Java  is  warm  enough  for  the  mulberry, 
but  too  damp  ; the  tree  does  not  grow  quickly.  Silk- 
worms, under  the  influence  of  the  constant  heat,  spin  all 
the  year  round  and  lose  their  stamina  ; while  in  Japan 
they  cease  to  spin  in  the  winter. 

It  has  been  hoped  that  by  means  of  hybridisation  a 
bombyx  might  be  obtained  which  would  resist  the  climate  ; 
but  hitherto  all  the  silk  obtained  by  European  makers 
has  cost  more  than  it  has  sold  for,  and  there  are  now 
only  three  silkworm-breeding  establishments  in  Java  : the 
most  important,  that  of  Pangkalan  (in  Batavia),  which  is 
combined  with  a winding-factory,  is  the  only  one  which 
has  yielded  its  owner  profits.  It  is  the  property  of  a 
Chinaman,  who  exports  his  raw  silk  to  Hongkong  and 
even  to  Lyons.1 

There  are  two  factors,  however,  which  seem  to  ensure 
the  future  of  Javanese  industry.  One  is  the  abundance  of 
cheap  labour  : the  daily  wage  of  the  field-labourer, 
excepting  at  exceptional  times  or  for  tending  to  ex- 
ceptional crops,  does  not  exceed  9d.  or  iod.  ; and 
although  the  Javanese  is  not  muscular  he  is  sober,  skilful, 
docile,  and  capable  of  doing  excellent  work. . 

Secondly,  although  Java  possessess  no  coal-mines, 
Borneo  and  Sumatra  are  rich  in  coal  measures.  These 
two  factors  are  important  elements  of  success. 

V. 

The  capitalists  of  Holland  turn  naturally  to  the  East 
Indies,  and  have  powerfully  contributed  to  the  develop- 
ment of  agricultural  products  in  the  colonies.  They  have 

1 See  P.  Serre’s  La  Sericulture  et  Vindustrie  sericigene  a Java,  in 
L’ Agriculture  des  pays  Chauds,  1906,  pp.  347-349. 


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it  within  their  power  to  develop  the  production  of  manu- 
factured articles. 

For  a long  period  they  did  not  care  to  run  the  risks  of 
investment  in  manufacturing  enterprises,  on  account  of 
the  exacting  State  monopolies,  which  stood  in  the  way 
of  all  private  enterprise.  In  1828  the  Bank  of  Java 
( Javasclie  Bank)  began  to  place  its  reserves  at  the  disposal 
of  Dutch  merchants  in  the  Indies.  In  1837  the  Govern- 
ment began  to  introduce,  or  rather  to  allow,  the  free 
labour  of  the  natives ; and  the  Indo-Dutch  Banking 
Company  ( N ederlandsch-Indische  Escompto-Maatschap- 
pij)  opened  large  credit  accounts  for  the  benefit  of  private 
agricultural  enterprises.  In  1862  these  accounts  had  in- 
creased to  such  an  extent  that  the  money  market  in  Java 
was  badly  strained  ; in  1863  the  mother-country  found  it 
necessary  to  come  to  the  rescue,  and  realised  that  it  was 
to  her  interest  to  do  so.  The  Indo-Dutch  Bank  of  Com- 
merce (N  ederlandsch-Indische  Handels  Bank ) of  Amster- 
dam, the  Bank  of  Rotterdam,  and  the  Rotterdam  Inter- 
national Society  of  Commerce  and  Credit  ( Interna- 
tionale Crediet  en  Handelsvereeniging  “ Rotterdam  ”) 
opened  branches  in  Batavia,  but  were  anticipated  by  the 
English  “ Chartered  Bank  of  India,  Australia,  and  China.” 

The  Indo-Dutch  Bank  of  Commerce  was  the  only  one 
to  prosper,  which  in  1881  founded  in  Amsterdam  the 
Colonial  Bank  ( Koloniale  Bank). 

In  1878  the  '‘Amsterdam”  Society  of  Commerce 
(Handelsvereeniging  “ Amsterdam  ")  entered  upon  a com- 
mercial career,  and  also  advanced  money  to  finance 
agricultural  undertakings. 

In  1884  the  crisis  brought  about  by  the  tremendous 
fall  in  the  price  of  sugar  ruined  nearly  all  these  institu- 
tions. The  Indo-Dutch  Commercial  Bank  saved  itself 
only  by  reconstruction  under  a new  name,  reappearing 
as  the  Indo-Dutch  Agricultural  Society  (N ederlandsch- 
Indische  Landbouw  Maatschappij).  The  crisis  was  soon 
over,  and  the  banks  developed  as  the  island  prospered, 
with  whose  fortunes  their  own  were  bound  up.  To-day 
the  following  institutions  give  a solid  support  to  the  enter- 


INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 


247 


prises  which  are  incessantly  springing  up  throughout  the 
Dutch  Indies  : the  Bank  of  Java,  the  Dutch  Society  of 
Commerce,  the  Indo-Dutch  Discount  Society,  the  Indo- 
Dutch  Agricultural  Society,  the  Indo-Dutch  Bank  of 
Commerce,  the  International  Society  of  Credit  and 
Commerce,  the  “ Amsterdam  ” Commercial  Society,  the 
Colonial  Bank,  the  Principalities  Agricultural  Company 
(i Cultuur-Maatschappij  der  Vorstenlanden),  the  Indo-Dutch 
Bank  and  Credit  Society,  the  Indo-Dutch  Mortgage  Bank 
( N ederlandsch-Indische  Hypotheekbank)  of  Batavia,  and 
the  Javanese  Mortgage  Bank  ( Javasche  Hypotheekbank) 
of  Amsterdam,  which  has  its  branch  establishment  in 
Surabaja.1 

It  is  perhaps  a pity  that  there  are  no  similar  institutions 
to  come  to  the  aid  of  the  native  industries  and  native 
agricultural  enterprises,  which  are  both  as  yet  in  a 
rudimentary  stage.  Lacking  sufficient  technical  know- 
ledge, without  traditions,  nor  an  education  which  might 
impel  them  to  engage  in  commerce  or  manufactures,  the 
Javanese  masses  are  devoid  of  the  funds  necessary  to 
equip  any  enterprise  in  a modern  and  remunerative 
manner. 

For  centuries  the  Javanese  has  been  confined  to  his 
piece  of  land  ; forbidden  all  ambition  ; deprived  of  the 
fruit  of  his  labour,  which  he  has  yielded,  the  more  surely 
to  ruin  himself,  to  the  Chinaman  or  Arab  ; and  the 
native  chiefs  have  been  even  more  absolute  in  their  cruel 
indifference  than  the  Dutch  Government  itself. 

To-day  Holland  wishes  to  uplift  the  native ; to  render 
him  henceforth  more  capable  of  adding  to  and  sharing  in 
the  prosperity  of  Java  ; later  on,  no  doubt,  to  help  him  to 
direct  his  own  destinies.  But  the  native  has  neither  fore- 
sight nor  an  inclination  to  save  ; and  he  dislikes  the 
anxieties  of  commerce,  in  which  he  feels  that  he  is  still 

1 See  N.  P.  Van  den  Berg,  Coup  d'ceil  sur  les  institutions  de  com- 
merce et  de  credit  aux  Indes  Neerlandaises,  in  Expos,  univ.  intern,  de 
igoo  a Paris.  Guide  a trailers  la  section  des  Indes  Neerlandaises 
(The  Hague,  1900,  8vo,  p.  54  et  seq.),  and  the  article  by  the  same 
author,  Crediet  instellingen  in  the  Encycl.  v.  Ned.  Indie. 


248 


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too  much  the  novice.  Agricultural  enterprises  might 
succeed  in  the  hands  of  chiefs  who  are  possessed  of 
capital  ; but  they  are  too  often  completely  idle,  and 
utterly  inept  in  everything  but  the  pursuit  of  trashy  plea- 
sures. The  masses  possess  nothing  ; so  that  the  great 
necessity  on  all  sides  is  education,  and  under  certain 
circumstances,  credit ; for  European  trade  has  expanded 
as  it  has  solely  by  means  of  credit. 

The  year  1897  saw  the  foundation  in  the  Residency  of 
Banjumas  of  a credit  establishment  for  natives  : the 
“ Poerwokertosclie  Hulp-,  Spaar-en  Landbouwcrediet-bank.” 
This  bank  has  already  been  of  very  great  service,  and 
native  trade  in  the  region  of  Poerwokerto  has  greatly 
developed,  which  leads  one  to  hope  that  the  bank  will 
soon  open  branches,  or  that  rival  establishments  will  be 
founded  in  all  parts  of  Java. 

The  propaganda  instituted  among  the  Javanese  with 
the  object  of  inducing  them  to  put  by  little  hoards  in 
the  savings-bank,  is  also  bearing  fruit.  Each  year  there 
is  a slight  increase  in  the  number  of  accounts  and  the 
total  of  the  sums  saved.  That  this  increase  is  not 
greater  is  due,  not  only  to  the  Javanese  lack  of  pru- 
dence, whether  native  or  acquired,  and  the  suspicious 
traditionalism  of  the  Javanese,  but  to  his  actual  poverty. 
To  be  able  to  save  he  must  first  have  enough  to  eat ; 
such  is  not  always  his  condition,  even  upon  the  fertile 
soil  of  Java. 

VI. 

The  transport  of  articles  of  commerce,  both  in  Java 
and  out  of  it,  is  facilitated  by  excellent  means  of  com- 
munication, both  by  land  and  by  sea. 

Thanks  to  Daendels,  who  gave  the  first  impulse  to 
road-making,  and  built  the  best  possible  type  of  road  for 
the  country,  the  island  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by 
a magnificent  double  highway,  which  brought  fresh  life 
to  the  north  of  the  island.  Since  the  time  of  Daendels 
roads  have  been  built  almost  everywhere,  with  more  or 
less  success,  the  work  of  supervision  having  for  a long 


INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 


249 


time  been  left  to  the  native  chiefs,  while  the  work  was 
performed  by  means  of  corvees.  The  introduction  of 
free  labour  had  an  excellent  result  upon  road-making, 
as  upon  everything  else.  It  was  obviously  to  the  interest 
of  the  planters  that  the  roads  leading  from  their  plan- 
tations or  factories  should  be  kept  in  good  condition, 
since  they  depended  upon  them  for  the  transport  of  their 
products  ; the  result  was  that  they  expended  pains  upon 
them  by  which  every  one  benefited. 

The  foundation  of  a department  of  bridges  and  high- 
ways in  Java  has  been  of  great  benefit  to  the  country. 
The  engineers  have  built  solid  bridges  across  the 
bandjirs,  or  torrential  watercourses,  replacing  the  frail 
bamboo  girders  which  were  constructed  by  the  natives, 
and  were  periodically  carried  away,  thus  leaving  portions 
of  the  island  absolutely  isolated,  sometimes  for  months 
at  a time. 

But  the  roads,  except  in  the  more  inaccessible  places, 
where  they  are  in  the  worst  repair,  and  also  the  sole 
means  of  communication,  do  not  now  play  the  prepon- 
derating part  in  the  commercial  life  of  Java.  Less  and 
less  frequently  are  they  furrowed  by  the  heavy  glindings 
(native  transport  wagons).  Both  the  white  man  and  the 
brown  have  turned,  with  equal  enthusiasm,  from  the 
road  to  the  railway ; a fact  which  proves  that  the  brown 
man  is  perfectly  accessible  to  the  victories  of  progress. 
For  a long  time  the  State,  actuated  by  a narrow,  dis- 
trustful, and  egotistical  jealousy  of  its  domination  in 
Java,  refused  to  allow  the  construction  of  railways. 

In  1863,  however,  it  granted  permission  to  Messrs. 
Poolman,  Fraser  and  Kol  to  construct  and  exploit  a line 
of  railroad  running  from  Samarang,  through  Surakarta 
and  Djokjakarta,  to  Ambarawa.  In  1868  the  same 
company  received  permission  to  build  a line  from 
Batavia  to  Buitenzorg.  What  with  various  unforeseen 
contingencies  and  impediments,  some  of  which  were  not 
easily  overcome,  and  delay  in  the  actual  work  of  con- 
struction, these  two  lines  were  not  finally  opened  to  the 
public  until  1872. 


250 


JAVA 


Their  success  was  complete,  in  respect  both  of  the 
services  rendered  to  the  planters  and  natives  and  the 
profits  realised  by  the  builders. 

Since  then  the  State  of  Holland  has  constructed  rail- 
ways (Spoonvegen)  both  in  Java  and  Madura.  To-day  the 
two  islands  contain  some  1,320  miles  of  railroad,  earning 
.£923,600  in  net  profits.  The  railway  now  traverses  the 
great  island  from  end  to  end  ; starting  from  Batavia, 
whence  it  throws  toward  the  west  two  small  branch 
lines  to  Anjer  and  Labun  respectively,  it  there  turns 
southward,  serving  Buitenzorg  and  Sukabumi ; turns 
sharply  to  the  north,  reaches  Padalarang,  and  sends  out 
a second  branch  to  Batavia,  encircling  the  whole  pro- 
vince of  that  name.  The  main  line  then  turns  south- 
ward once  more  to  Bandung,  crosses  the  Preangers,  the 
Residency  of  Banjumas,  the  two  Principalities  of  Djok- 
jakarta and  Surakarta  (Solo),  meets  the  old  Samarang 
railway,  runs  westward  to  Surabaja,  and  then  encircles 
the  western  portion  of  the  island  to  end  at  Banju- 
wangi  and  Situbondo.  This  magnificent  system  is  com- 
pleted by  a steam  tramway  system  (Stoomtramwegen) 
which  runs  along  the  north  coast  of  Java,  covering  a 
length  or  1,550  miles  and  bringing  in  a revenue  of 
£ 800,000 . 

Transport  in  the  centre  of  Java  profits  little  by  the 
narrow  watercourses  by  which  the  surface  of  the  land 
is  furrowed,  owing  to  the  torrential  nature  of  these 
streams,  and  the  wealth  of  their  alluvial  deposits.  Few 
of  them  can  be  ascended  by  anything  larger  that  the 
native  prahou,  and  even  so  the  ascent  is  extremely 
slow.  Only  the  Tjiliwong  of  Batavia,  the  Tjitarum,  the 
Tjimanuk,  the  Tjitanduwi,  the  Seraju,  and  the  Solo  and 
Brantas  Rivers  are  navigable  for  larger  vessels,  and  only 
for  a small  proportion  of  their  courses.  All  such  work 
as  the  cutting  of  canals  and  the  cutting  or  dredging  of 
channels  has  been  so  quickly  rendered  useless  by  the 
constant  deposit  of  silt  or  mud  that  further  attempts 
to  improve  these  rivers  were  long  ago  discouraged. 

To  turn  to  the  sea,  however,  we  find  that  there  is  a 


INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 


251 


very  active  movement  between  the  various  ports  of  Java, 
and  between  Java  and  the  rest  of  the  Archipelago.  The 
Royal  Packet-Boat  Company  ( Koninklijke  Packetvaart 
Maatschappij),  which  is  subsidised  by  the  State,  obtains 
much  of  this  traffic.  In  1907  this  company  owned 
51  packet-boats,  carrying  407,965  passengers.  An  Eng- 
lish company,  with  its  headquarters  at  Singapore,  serves 
the  ports  of  Java,  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Sumatra,  and 
the  western  coast  of  Borneo,  and  competes,  to  a certain 
extent,  with  the  former  company.  The  Royal  Packet- 
Boat  Company  carries,  besides  its  passengers,  the  salt 
produced  by  the  State,  and  coal  from  Ombilin  for 
Government  use. 

In  1907  the  movements  of  the  mercantile  marine  in 
the  Dutch  East  Indies,  exclusive  of  the  Royal  Packet- 
Boat  Company,  were  represented  by  the  following 
figures  : 190  steamers,  145  European  sailing-vessels,  and 
2,327  native  sailing-vessels  ; in  all  2,795  vessels,  with  a 
capacity  of  some  567,000  cubic  yards,  or  some  430,000 
tons  displacement.  For  Java  and  Madura  the  figures 
were  1,640  vessels  and  335,000  cubic  yards  capacity. 

VII. 

Transactions  with  the  interior  of  Java,  the  Outer 
Possessions,  and  the  rest  of  the  world  are  facilitated 
by  an  excellent  system  of  posts,  telegraphs,  and  tele- 
phones. 

On  the  31st  of  December,  1907,  the  number  of  post- 
offices  in  the  Dutch  Indies  was  291  ; there  were  176 
telegraph  offices  in  the  cities  and  367  in  the  railway- 
stations,  and  there  were  58  public  telephone  offices. 
There  were  5,600  miles  of  telegraph  lines,  8,740  miles 
of  wires,  and  3,250  miles  of  submarine  cables. 

VIII. 

The  adoption  by  Holland  of  the  metric  system  of 
weights  and  measures,  and  her  introduction  of  that 


252 


JAVA 


system  into  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  has  greatly  facilitated 
the  conduct  of  trade. 

The  Dutch  monetary  system,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  is  quite  peculiar  to  Holland,  is  troublesome  to 
the  foreigner.  The  pound  sterling  is  accepted  every- 
where, but  the  importation  of  Asiatic  coinage  into  the 
Dutch  Indies  is  strictly  prohibited ; so  that  the  first  care 
of  the  merchant  or  the  tourist,  upon  landing  at  Tand- 
jong  Priok,  is  to  obtain  a supply  of  Dutch  currency 
from  a money-changer  or  a bank — that  is,  if  he  has  not 
already  done  so  before  beginning  the  voyage.  The 
monetary  standard  is  the  piece  of  io  florins,  weighing 
6*72  grammes,  the  purity  being  *9,  and  the  value  that 
of  6*048  grammes  of  pure  gold.  The  standard  of  silver 
money  is  the  florin  or  gulden,  weighing  10  grammes, 
containing  ’945  of  pure  silver,  or  9*45  grammes.  Its 
value  varies  from  20*16  pence  to  19*968  pence  ; approxi- 
mately twelve  are  equivalent  to  the  pound  sterling 
English.  The  silver  coins  are  : the  gulden  or  florin, 
divided  into  100  cents  ; the  rijksda alder,  or  rix-dollar, 
worth  2\  florins,  or  the  value  of  an  American  dollar ; 
the  half  florin,  the  quarter  florin  ( kwartje ),  and  the 
tenth  of  a florin  ( dubbeltje ). 

The  principal  golden  coin  is  the  piece  of  10  florins, 
worth  16s.  8d. 

The  smaller  coins  are  : the  5-cent  piece,  in  nickel 
(worth  one  penny),  the  2^-cent  piece  in  bronze  (worth 
a halfpenny),  and  the  i-cent  and  £-cent  pieces,  also 
in  bronze. 

IX. 

The  transportation  of  the  products  of  the  Indies  to 
Europe  and  vice  versa  is  effected,  for  the  majority  of 
private  exporters  and  importers,  by  means  of  the  Rotter- 
damsche  Lloyd  line  of  steamers,  and  the  Dutch  Navi- 
gation Company  ( Stoomvaartmaatschappij  Nederland). 
These  lines  also  carry  for  the  Government  by  annual 
contract. 

The  tariffs  and  customs  duties  have  been  profoundly 


INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 


253 


modified  since  the  fall  of  the  system  of  compulsory 
crops,  and  since  the  declaration  of  Singapore  as  a free 
port. 

In  1872  the  narrow  protectionist  system  which  prac- 
tically forbade  foreigners  admittance  to  the  Indies,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  prosperity  of  the  islands,  was  abolished, 
and  the  flags  of  all  nations  were  admitted  on  equal  terms 
to  the  open  ports.  The  enormous  development  of 
Singapore  has  since  then  led  Holland  to  adopt  a policy 
progressing  towards  free  trade ; abolishing  or  diminish- 
ing the  heavy  anchorage  and  pilot  dues,  and  creating  a 
series  of  free  ports,  in  which  exports  and  imports  alike 
are  subject  to  the  provisions  of  commercial  treaties 
between  Holland  and  the  interested  Powers.1 

The  total  value  of  the  imports  received  by  the  Dutch 
Indies  in  1907,  including  those  destined  for  the  Govern- 
ment as  well  as  for  private  merchants,  and  inclusive  also 
of  gold  and  merchandise,  was  .£20,605,892  ; Java  and 
Madura  alone  absorbing  imports  to  the  value  of 
.£12,726,722.  The  value  of  the  exports  amounted  to 
■£30,379,095,  of  which  amount  Java  and  Madura  accounted 
for  ^17,636,249. 

The  chief  imports  are  rice,  such  edibles  as  butter, 
cheese,  flour,  pork,  &c.,  metals,  machinery,  woven  stuffs, 
and  manufactured  articles  generally.  The  principal 

1 Article  130  of  the  Regeeringsreglement  (Fundamental  Law  of  the 
Dutch  Indies) : “ Every  vessel  belonging  to  a nation  friendly  to  the 
kingdom  of  Holland  is  admitted  to  the  ports  of  the  Dutch  Indies 
open  to  general  trade,  provided  that  it  observes  the  general  and 
local  regulations.  To  the  other  ports  only  native  vessels,  and  those 
which  are  authorised  to  take  part  in  the  coasting  trade  under  the 
Dutch  flag  are  admitted.” 

The  ports  open  to  foreign  trade  are  called  vrijhavens  (free  ports), 
and  in  such  ports  the  Dutch  Government  imposes  no  restrictions 
or  duties  upon  the  entry  and  exit  of  ships  or  merchandise.  The 
only  official  free  port  is  Riouw,  but  in  practice  the  ports  of 
Bengkalis  and  Sabang  (both  in  Sumatra)  are  treated  as  free 
ports.  The  Inlandsche  havens  (native  ports)  are  the  ports  of  the 
native  princes  and  peoples  whose  islands  are  not  directly  governed 
by  Holland,  although  they  levy  the  customs  duties.  The  entry 
to  these  ports  is  free  to  all  vessels, 


254 


JAVA 


products  exported  are  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  tea,  quinine, 
cinchona,  indigo,  copra,  and  various  oils  and  pelts. 

The  French,  despite  their  interests  in  the  Far  East, 
and  the  neighbourhood  of  Indo-China,  play  a very 
small  part  in  the  carrying  trade  of  the  Dutch  Indies. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  figures  relating  to  Great  Britain 
(in  1907)  amounted  to  563  vessels  and  3,554  tons ; 
Germany  comes  next  with  318  vessels  and  1,231  tons  ; 
Holland  with  169  vessels  and  1,244  tons  ; but  France 
comes  after  Norway,  with  26  vessels  only  and  84  tons  of 
merchandise  ; the  lowest  figures.  In  the  same  year  the 
exports  from  France  to  the  Dutch  Indies  fell  from 
£166,660  to  £108,500,  and  the  exports  from  Saigon  from 
£508,380  to  £308,300  ; the  sole  cause  of  this  decline 
being  the  commercial  apathy  of  the  French.  These 
sums  are  indeed  miserable  beside  the  £2,833,330  worth 
of  English  exports  and  the  £4,083,330  worth  from 
Singapore. 


X. 

Passenger  traffic  from  Europe  to  the  Indies  is  effected, 
with  all  the  comfort  and  ease  imaginable,  by  large  steam- 
ship companies  owned  by  the  principal  European 
countries.  The  departures  of  the  steamers  are  so 
arranged  among  the  companies  that  approximately 
speaking  a steamer  passes  any  given  point  once  in  every 
three  days.  The  most  important  lines  are  the  Rotter- 
dam Lloyd  and  the  Nederland  of  Amsterdam  (Stoom- 
vaartmaatshoppij  Nederland).  Every  other  Saturday  a 
boat  owned  by  one  of  these  lines  leaves  Europe  with 
the  mails.  The  Rotterdam  Lloyd  steamers  touch  at 
Southampton,  Lisbon,  Tangier,  Gibraltar,  Marseilles, 
Egypt,  Ceylon,  and  vice  versa , and  connect  with  vessels 
running  to  the  various  ports  of  the  Archipelago.  The 
price  of  the  single  passage,  not  including  wine  or  beer, 
from  Rotterdam  to  Padang,  Batavia,  Samarang,  or 
Surabaja,  is  £71  10s.  first  class  and  £41  15s.  second 
class.  From  Marseilles  the  fares  are  £67  2s.  and 


INDUSTRY— COMMERCE 


255 


.£38  7s.  No  charge  is  made  for  children  under  three  ; 
and  children  under  twelve  pay  half  the  full  fare. 

Every  adult  first-  or  second-class  passenger  has  the 
right  to  take  with  him,  free  of  payment,  a cubic  metre  of 
luggage — about  34  cubic  feet — and  a deck  chair.  Extra 
luggage  must  be  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  £1  10s.  per  cubic 
metre.  The  cabin  trunk  or  portmanteaus  to  be  kept  in 
the  cabin  must  not  exceed  nf  inches  in  depth  ; and  no 
nailed  cases  are  allowed  in  the  cabins.  Ordinary  luggage, 
with  legible  labels  bearing  the  name  of  the  owner  and 
his  destination,  is  placed  in  the  hold,  where  it  is  accessible 
on  certain  days,  excepting  Sunday. 

The  Nederland  carries  passengers  at  the  same  charges 
and  under  the  same  conditions  ; but  it  sails  from  Amster- 
dam, stops  at  Southampton,  Lisbon,  Tangier,  Algiers, 
Genoa,  Port  Said,  Suez,  Perim,  Aden,  Colombo,  Sabang, 
Deli-Penang,  Asahan,  Singapore,  Batavia,  Samarang,  and 
Surabaja. 

The  North  German  Lloyd  line  sails  once  a fortnight 
from  Bremen  and  Hamburg  alternately.  It  touches  at 
Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  Southampton,  Gibraltar,  Algiers, 
Genoa,  Naples,  Port  Said,  Suez,  Aden,  Colombo,  Penang, 
and  Singapore.  At  Singapore  passengers  tranship  on  board 
the  steamers  of  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaartmaatschappij 
for  Batavia,  Samarang,  and  Surabaja.  The  price  of  the 
single  passage  from  Bremen,  Hamburg,  Rotterdam, 
Antwerp,  or  Southampton,  exclusive  of  wine  or  beer,  is 
£ 66  first  class  and  .£44  second  ; from  Gibraltar,  Algiers, 
Genoa,  or  Naples  the  first-class  fare  is  £61  12s.  and  the 
second-class  fare  -£41  16s.  Each  passenger  may  take  441  lb. 
of  luggage  free,  the  excess  dues  being  about  10s.  per  cwt. 

The  Messageries  Maritimes  run  a fortnightly  service 
from  Marseilles,  corresponding  with  the  mails  for 
Batavia.  Passengers  for  Samarang  and  Surabaja  are 
furnished  by  the  agents  of  the  company  at  Batavia  with 
railway  tickets  for  either  of  these  cities. 

The  ports  touched  at  are  Port  Said,  Djibonti,  Aden, 
Colombo,  and  Singapore  (where  the  Batavia  steamer  is 
joined).  The  passage-money  to  Batavia,  Samarang,  or 


256 


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Surabaja,  wine  included,  is  ^67  first  class,  £46  4s.  second 
class,  and  .£24  4s.  third  class. 

First-  and  second-class  passengers  are  allowed  330  lb. 
(150  kilos)  of  luggage  free  of  charge  ; passengers  paying 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  a first-class  cabin  may  take  551  lb. 
(250  kilos)  of  luggage  free.1  The  excess  charge  is  £1 
per  220  lb.  (per  100  kilos).  Cabin  trunks  must  not  be 
more  than  15!  inches  deep  or  wide,  nor  31!  inches  long. 

The  abundant  comfort  and  the  comparatively  low 
terms  afforded  by  the  Messageries  Maritimes  brings  that 
company  passengers  of  all  nationalities. 

Not  only  are  merchants,  financiers,  and  engineers  flock- 
ing to  Java  ; but  for  the  last  fifteen  years  there  has  been 
quite  an  influx  of  tourists  of  all  nationalities,  who  have 
come  to  admire  the  “ pearl  of  the  Archipelago,”  which  is 
also  the  fowl  that  lays  the  golden  eggs ; and  more 
especially  to  continue,  from  Benares  to  Angkor  Wat,  and 
from  Angkor  to  Batavia,  the  pilgrimage  of  admiration 
that  even  ungrateful  humanity  is  forced  to  admit  the  due 
of  the  Hindu  genius. 

1 The  traveller  should  take  with  him  as  little  as  possible  in  the  way 
of  unnecessary  clothes  and  boxes  ; he  can  easily  obtain  all  he  needs 
in  Batavia,  or  the  other  large  towns  of  Java,  and  at  very  reasonable 
prices  ; especially  in  the  case  of  tropical  suits  of  white  cloth  or  linen, 
which  are  cheaper  and  better  than  those  to  be  obtained  at  home. 
Besides  the  necessary  linen,  pyjamas,  cholera-belts,  &c.,  the  traveller 
should  buy  for  the  journey  a couple  of  blue  reefer  suits,  a light 
lounge  suit  for  the  afternoons,  and  a dinner-jacket.  Two  suits  of 
khaki  will  be  useful.  To  these  he  should  add  a sun-helmet,  a travel- 
ling cap,  a soft  felt  or  tweed  hat,  an  overcoat,  two  pairs  of  boots  or 
shoes,  slippers,  and  stylograph,  a photographic  outfit,  an  umbrella 
and  a parasol,  a dressing-case,  a cabin  trunk,  a collapsible  pigskin 
bag,  a strong  linen  or  jute  hold-all  or  kit-bag,  a trunk  for  the  hold, 
and  a cane  deck-chair  (which  he  can  buy  at  Marseilles).  He  will 
then  possess  the  indispensable  minimum.  A woman  will  require,  in 
addition  to  certain  of  the  above  articles,  a few  summer  frocks,  plenty 
of  peignoirs,  tea-gowns,  and  hats,  all  very  light,  and  a good  warm 
cloak  for  the  evening.  Some  women  prefer  a sun-helmet  with 
gauze  veil  rather  than  a hat.  The  above  are  merely  general  indica- 
tions ; the  traveller  can  add  to  this  minimum  according  to  his  purse 
and  his  individual  tastes. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  OUTER  POSSESSIONS  ( BUITENBEZITTINGEN ). 

SUMATRA  AND  THE  ARCHIPELAGO  OF  RIOUW 
LINGGA. 

I.  The  various  divisions  of  the  “ Outer  Possessions,”  land  the  im- 
portance of  Sumatra. — II.  The  dimensions,  physical  aspect, 
and  coast-line  of  Sumatra. — III.  The  rivers  and  the  sea-coast 
of  Sumatra. — IV.  The  climate,  flora,  and  fauna. — V.  The 
native  races;  their  origin,  beliefs,  and  manners. — VI.  The 
principal  languages  : the  most  useful  language  for  the  visitor  to 
or  inhabitant  of  Sumatra. 


I. 

The  “Outer  Possessions”  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
comprise  : (i)  all  the  larger  of  the  Sunda  Islands,  except- 
ing Java  and  Madura — that  is,  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes, 
and  their  immediate  neighbours ; (2)  all  the  lesser 
of  the  Sunda  Islands — Bali,  Lombok,  Sumbawa,  Flores, 
Sumba,  Alor,  Timor,  Rotti,  Kei,  Aru,  &c. ; (3)  the 

Moluccas  and  the  Dutch  portion  of  New  Guinea.  Very 
much  larger  than  Java  and  Madura  collectively,  often 
individually  larger,  and  often  as  rich  in  natural  pro- 
ducts, they  are  inferior  in  the  number  of  their  inhabi- 
tants and  in  their  civilisation. 

From  the  administrative  point  of  view  the  Buiten- 
bezittingen  have  been  divided  into  seventeen  Residencies 
or  Governments,  established  without  much  regard  to 
ethnological  facts,  but  rather  according  to  their  economic 
value,  their  political  situation  with  regard  to  the  central 
Dutch  power.  Sumatra  contains  three  of  these  Resi- 
dencies : nine  if  we  count  the  Riouw  Lingga  Archipelago, 

18  257 


258 


JAVA 


the  Banka  islands,  and  Billiton  or  Blitung.  Dutch 
Borneo,  vast  as  it  is,  contains  but  two  ; Celebes  and  its 
dependencies  two  ; the  Moluccas  two  ; Timor,  the  Flores, 
Sumba  and  Rotti  one  ; Bali  and  Lombok  one. 

Sumatra  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  these  Outer 
Possessions.  Scarcely  smaller  than  Borneo,  some  four 
times  the  size  of  Java,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Straits  of  Sunda,  it  has  an  area  of  180,380  square  miles 
if  we  include  its  dependencies,  or  167,480  square  miles  if 
taken  alone  ; in  short,  its  area,  comparable  to  that  of 
Spain,  is  thirteen  times  that  of  the  Netherlands.  Its 
population,  on  the  other  hand,  is  only  3,189,027  ; an 
absurd  figure  when  compared  to  the  dense  population  of 
Java,  or  with  the  wide  expanse  of  Sumatra  itself,  which 
might  easily  contain  and  support  some  seventy-five 
million  human  beings. 

We  have  here  the  reason  why  Sumatra,  whose  soil  and 
subsoil  hold  their  own  easily  with  those  of  Java  in  the 
matter  of  mineral  and  agricultural  wealth,  is  only  now 
commencing  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Dutch.  Java 
is  a country  of  magnificent  realisation  : Sumatra  has 
only  a great  future.  More  advantageously  placed  than 
Java,  on  the  threshold  of  the  ocean  highway  from  the 
West  to  the  Far  East,  a close  neighbour  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  of  India,  it  seems  to  guard  the  entry  to 
the  China  Sea,  to  Indo-China,  China,  and  Japan. 

This  advantageous  position,  and  a more  complete 
knowledge  of  its  natural  resources,  are  to-day  leading  the 
Dutch  Government  to  develop  Sumatra  with  tenacious 
energy,  in  spite  of  the  courage,  independence,  or  fanaticism 
of  populations  which  render  the  national  organisation  of 
the  country  a far  more  difficult  task  than  the  organisation 
of  thirty  millions  of  Javanese  has  been. 

II. 

Just  as  Java  has  often  been  compared,  in  respect  of  its 
shape  and  orientation,  to  Cuba,  so  Sumatra  has  been 
compared  with  the  great  French  colony  of  Madagascar. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  259 


The  extent  and  configuration  of  the  two  islands,  each 
of  which  presents  one  almost  rectilinear  coast  bordering 
on  profound  oceanic  depths,  while  the  other  coast,  much 
indented,  slopes  gently  to  a shallower  sea ; each  of 
which  is  traversed  by  a backbone  of  mountain  ranges, 
running  in  parallel  chains  from  one  extremity  of  the 
island  to  the  other  ; the  relative  insalubrity  of  the  coastal 
regions  as  contrasted  with  the  hot  but  very  healthy 
climate  of  the  plateaux  and  valleys  of  the  interior  ; all 
these  facts  contribute  to  a very  real  resemblance. 

It  would  be  more  fitting,  however,  to  compare  Sumatra 
to  Java,  especially  in  respect  of  its  geological,  orographical, 
and  hydrographical  constitution ; Java  in  many  ways 
being  but  an  attenuated  continuation  of  Sumatra. 

Sumatra,  like  Java  and  Borneo,  is  largely  formed  of 
strata  of  the  tertiary  period,  although  it  also  contains 
two  schistous  formations,  one  of  which  is  anterior  to 
the  carboniferous  period.  The  tertiary  series  is  more 
complete  than  in  Java;  the  numerous  volcanoes,  so 
characteristic  of  the  whole  Archipelago,  are  due  to  the 
quaternary  period. 

In  Sumatra,  which  is  still  only  partially  explored,  there 
have  already  been  discovered  ninety  volcanoes,  of  which 
twelve  are  now  active ; they  are,  counting  from  north  to 
south  : Sinabung,  Sibajak,  Pusuk  Bukit,  Sorik  Berapi, 
Pasaman,  Singgalang,  Merapi,  Talang,  Korintji,  Kaba, 
Dempo,  and  Krakatau.  These  volcanoes  are  scattered 
amidst  the  series  of  mountainous  groups  which,  under  the 
name  of  the  Barisan  Mountains  ( Bukit  Barisan ) run  the 
whole  length  of  the  island ; closely  approaching  the 
western  coast,  and  attaining  their  widest  development  in 
the  southern  portion  of  Sumatra.  Whether  naked  or 
covered  with  verdure,  majestically  graceful  or  breached 
and  shattered  by  their  own  eruptions,  grouped  in  twos 
and  threes,  enclosing  narrow  valleys,  or  isolated  and  over- 
looking some  fertile  plain  which  they  enrich  and  devastate 
alternately,  surrounded  by  threatening  vapours,  or  bearing 
in  their  craters  a great  circular  lake  of  water,  these 
volcanoes  are  the  creative,  the  regulating,  and  often  the 


260 


JAVA 


perturbing  factors  of  the  orographic  and  hydrographic 
history  of  Sumatra.  Their  average  height  runs  from 
9,000  to  nearly  12,000  feet. 

The  first  volcanic  height  of  the  Bukit  Barisan  en- 
countered by  the  traveller  whose  direction  is  westward 
from  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  island,  is  Sinabung  ; 
then  the  range  splits  up  into  parallel  chains,  which  sur- 
round the  vast  lacrustine  lake  called  the  Sea  or  Lake  of 
Toba,  whose  area  is  about  785  square  miles,  and  its 
depth  from  1,300  to  1,470  feet.  A number  of  Batak 
villages  are  established  upon  its  banks ; they  live  by 
fishing  and  hunting  rather  than  by  agriculture  or  industry. 

Then  we  come  to  Mount  Malintang  ; then  to  Mount 
Pasaman  or  Ophir;1  isolated  and  majestic,  but  uncertain 
and  irascible  in  temper.  Then,  to  the  south  of  the 
beautiful  Masang  River,  we  reach  Manindju,  whose 
amputated  summit  bears  the  lake  of  the  same  name, 
wThose  slightly  sulphurous  waters  flow  into  the  Indian 
Ocean.  Then  follows  Singalang  ; then  Merapi,  on  whose 
summit,  so  the  Islamites  pretend,  the  ark  of  Noah  rested 
after  the  Deluge.  This  region,  cut  up  into  innumerable 
valleys  which  run  between  the  spurs  of  the  mountains, 
contains  another  lake  of  considerable  size,  though  its 
area  is  only  one-eleventh  of  that  of  the  Lake  of  Toba : 
the  Sea  of  Singkarah.  Further  south  still  the  chain 
continues  past  Talang  and  Korintji,  or  Indrapura  (the 
dwelling  of  Indra,  or  of  the  gods,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
natives),  always  in  eruption,  its  base  surrounded  by  a 
system  of  lakes,  all  smaller  than  the  Seas  of  Toba  and 
Singkarah.  As  we  approach  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  island  the  volcanoes,  although  less  majestic,  redouble 
their  activity  ; here  is  Kaba,  pointed  like  a sugar-loaf ; 
Dempo,  hailed  by  the  Malays  as  the  cradle  of  their  race  ; 

1 So  named  because  the  old  Portuguese  navigators  thought  they 
had  rediscovered  the  Ophir  whence  King  Solomon  drew  the  gold 
employed  in  building  the  Temple.  Ophir  has  also  been  located  in 
the  east  of  Malacca,  whence  the  name  of  Mount  Ophir,  sometimes 
given  to  Gunung  Ledang,  which  contains  considerable  quantities  of 
gold.  Its  actual  location  is  in  the  Zambesi  district. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGO  A 261 


Radja  Besar,  and  Krakatau  or  Rakata.  The  rumbling 
voice  of  Dempo  keeps  the  inhabitants  of  all  the  neigh- 
bouring valleys  for  ever  on  the  alert,  with  bated  breath  ; 
and  for  three  years,  from  1875  to  1878,  Kaba  sent  forth 
rivers  of  lava.  But  Krakatau,  upon  its  little  inhabited 
island,  after  three  months  of  low  rumblings,  and  ex- 
plosions of  smoke  and  flame,  which  provided  the  many 
tourists  who,  in  May,  1883,  came  thither  from  Batavia, 
with  a striking  and  somewhat  alarming  spectacle,  was 
the  centre  of  an  eruption  famous  in  the  history  of 
volcanoes.  This  eruption  reached  its  apogee  on  the  27th 
of  August.  For  more  than  a month  it  vomited  torrents  of 
rocks  and  ashes,  the  latter  reaching  a height  of  seventeen 
miles  and  covering  a stretch  of  nearly  a thousand  miles  ; 
obscuring  the  sun,  and  falling  in  a cloud  of  cinders  upon 
the  Keeling  Islands  (Cocos  Islands),  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
It  seemed  as  though  the  amazing  convulsions  of  this 
unfortunate  island  would  shatter  the  very  foundations  of 
the  globe.  At  Batavia,  from  the  26th  to  the  29th  of  August, 
the  horizon  remained  obscured,  and  all  Java  was  shaken  by 
an  extraordinary  tidal  wave,  by  subterranean  shocks,  and 
the  sound  as  of  a distant  cannonade.  Anjer  and  Tjaringin 
on  the  Javanese  side  of  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  Benawang 
and  Telok  Betong  on  the  Sumatra  side,  were  utterly 
erased  by  a gigantic  wave,  120  feet  in  height ; not  a trace 
was  left  of  house,  or  crop,  or  human  being.  More  than 
forty  thousand  persons  were  swept  away  and  drowned  ; 
only  the  keeper  of  the  lighthouse,  which  was  130  feet  in 
height,  was  saved  ; the  wave  merely  extinguishing  his  light. 
But  over  an  area  of  fourteen  square  miles,  all  living  crea- 
tures were  burned  to  death  ; and  the  two  hundred  inhabi- 
tants of  the  island  of  Sibesi  disappeared  beneath  the  waves. 

The  shores  of  the  Straits  of  Sunda  were  completely 
altered  in  their  configuration  ; the  entire  southern  portion 
of  the  island  of  Krakatau  had  disappeared,  to  be  replaced 
by  a gulf  nearly  1,000  feet  deep ; but  the  mass  of 
stones  and  cinders  which  were  blown  away  had  actually 
formed  new  islets  and  new  patches  of  land,  and  had 
doubled  the  size  of  the  Deserted  Isle  (Verlaten). 


262 


JAVA 


The  explosion  of  Krakatau  was  heard  in  the  Philip- 
pines, and  in  Japan,  and  was  followed  by  a rain  of 
cinders  ; over  all  the  southern  portion  of  Indo-China 
as  far  as  Lao,  it  sounded  like  the  dull  and  incessant 
discharge  of  countless  artillery  ; it  was  heard,  though  less 
loudly,  as  far  as  Europe  ; in  America,  along  the  Pacific 
coast,  it  caused  submarine  tremblings  and  movements  of 
the  sea  that  for  a moment  seemed  to  threaten  to  ravage 
the  coast ; and  its  tidal  wave  reached  Madagascar,  where 
masses  of  cinders  and  huge  fragments  of  pumice  were 
carried  by  the  ocean  currents. 

To-day  the  terrible  volcano,  as  well  as  the  island, 
is  reclad  in  a magnificent  mantle  of  foliage,  and  has 
resumed  its  benignant  aspect.1 


III. 

The  rivers  of  Sumatra,  together  with  the  volcanoes, 
are  the  creative  elements  of  the  island.  The  great  eastern 
plain  is  formed  almost  wholly  of  their  alluvial  deposits, 
and  is  slowly  but  surely  being  augmented  by  their  con- 
tinuous action.  Richer  in  alluvial  matter  than  the  rivers 
of  Java,  on  account  of  the  enormous  rainfall  of  Sumatra, 
these  rivers  have  otherwise  the  same  characteristics  as 
those  of  the  smaller  island.  On  the  steep  western  flank 
of  the  island,  shut  in  between  the  coast  and  the  mountain 
chains  which  border  it,  they  are  short,  torrential,  and 
rarely  navigable.  One  of  the  most  important  is  the 
Singkel,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Simpang  Kanan 
(the  right-hand  Simpang)  and  the  Simpang  Kiri  (the  left- 
hand  Simpang). 

The  rivers  of  the  eastern  watershed  flow  across  the  great 
alluvial  plain,  leisurely  draining  the  mountains  of  their 
waters ; their  course  is  often  majestic,  but  impeded  by 

1 See  C.  Dietrich,  edited  by  Prince  Roland  Bonaparte  : Les  pre- 
mieres nouvelles  concernant  I'eruption  du  Krakatau  ett  1883  dans  les 
insulindes  (Paris,  1883,  large  8vo) ; R.  O.  M.  Verbeek,  Krakatau 
(Batavia,  1886,  large  8vo). 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  263 


silt ; and  they  finally  reach  the  sea  through  numerous 
muddy  channels. 

Of  these  rivers  the  chief  is  the  Asahan,  which  drains 
the  enormous  Lake  of  Toba ; this,  for  a portion  of  its 
length,  is  navigable  by  steamers.  Next  is  the  Indrapura, 
which  waters  the  lowlands  of  Padang,  and  finishes  its 
individual  course  by  dividing  into  several  branches,  of 
which  three  are  the  Sungi  (river)  Sindang,  the  Sungi 
Lunang,  and  the  Sungi  Tapan.  Other  rivers  are  the 
Rokan,  which  flows  into  the  narrow  Malacca  Straits,  after 
a journey  of  more  than  120  miles,  through  a muddy 
estuary ; the  Siak,  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Tapung  Kanan  (the  right-hand  Tapan)  with  the  Tapung 
Kiri  (the  left-hand  Tapan),  which  flows  into  the  Brouwer 
Strait  ; the  Kampar,  the  Indragiri,  which  issues  from  the 
highlands  of  Padang,  traverses  the  Sea  or  Lake  of  Sing- 
karah,  under  the  name  of  the  Ombilin,  waters  the  coal 
country,  and  finally  debouches  opposite  the  Lingga 
Archipelago,  in  the  great  Gulf  of  Amphitrite ; the 
Djambi,  springing  from  Indrapura,  and  swelled  by  the 
Batang 1 Hari  and  the  Tambesi,  is  the  most  beautiful 
and  the  largest  of  all.  Opposite  Djambi  it  has  a width 
of  1,300  feet,  and  at  low  water  a depth  of  about  16  feet ; 
but  the  least  increase  of  tide  or  current  doubles  its  depth. 
Steamers  of  considerable  tonnage  can  lie  600  or  700 
yards  inland  ; and  native  vessels  ( prahous  or  praus)  some 
900  yards. 

The  batang  (or  river)  of  Palembang,  the  Musi,  is  the 
only  river  to  bear  comparison  with  the  Djambi.  Below 
Palembang  it  splits  up  into  a number  of  channels,  which 
spread  out  amidst  a vast,  unhealthy  swamp,  covering  an 
area  of  some  4,600  miles.  These  subsidiary  channels 
slowly  deposit  their  suspended  wealth  of  mud  among  the 
mangroves,  thus  gradually  creating  new  land.  Native 
tradition  states  that  Palembang,  to-day  55  miles  inland, 
was  once  a seaport ; but  through  the  centuries  the 
alluvial  ooze  of  the  river  has  pushed  the  shore  far  out  into 

1 Batang  means  “ river  ” in  Sumatra ; the  Malay  kali  and  the 
Sundanese  tji  have  the  same  meaning. 


264 


JAVA 


sea.  The  principal  branch  of  the  Musi,  the  Susang, 
which  flows  into  the  Banka  narrows,  is  accessible  during 
the  rains  to  vessels  of  considerable  tonnage,  and  to  vessels 
of  moderate  draught  the  whole  year  round. 

The  changeable  nature  of  the  coast  hereabouts  makes 
landing  always  an  uncertain,  and  often  an  unhealthy 
business.  The  indentations  of  the  shore  are  imper- 
manent, and  the  muddy  barriers  of  the  Sumatra  coast 
makes  it  no  easy  matter  to  establish  practicable  ports  or 
landings.  We  can  foresee  that  in  the  west,  and  more 
rapidly  in  the  east,  the  immense  mother-island  will  slowly 
gather  to  her  shores  the  chaplet  of  rocks  and  shoals  and 
islands  which  guard  them  from  north  to  south.  These 
islands,  which  are  parallel  to  the  western  coast,  to  which 
they  serve  as  a kind  of  outer  barrier,  have  a total  area  of 
5,760  square  miles,  and  a population  estimated  at  nearly 
300,000.  Starting  from  the  north  these  islands  are 
Simalur,  Banjak,  Nias,  Batu,  the  Mentawei  Archipelago, 
and  Engano. 

On  the  eastern  coast  the  islands  are  even  more 
numerous,  and  present  more  variety  of  size  and  group- 
ing. Some  are  low  and  of  alluvial  origin  ; the  islands  of 
Rupat,  Padang,  and  Bengkalis,  are  already  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  muddy  causeways  ; others  are  of 
granitic  formation,  more  of  a volcanic  character,  and  set 
further  out  at  sea,  such  as  the  archipelagos  of  Riouw 
and  of  Lingga.  Yet  of  these  even  Banka  and  Billiton 
show  signs  of  future  absorption  by  alluvial  deposits. 

IV. 

The  climate  of  Sumatra,  like  that  of  Java,  belongs  to 
the  zone  of  alternate  monsoons  : the  south-east  mon- 
soon, dry  and  hot,  which  lasts  from  May  to  September, 
and  the  north-west  monsoon,  which  lasts  from  November 
to  March,  and  which  brings  the  heavy  rains.  The  pre- 
vailing temperature  is  as  high  in  the  sister  island,  and 
always  very  equable,  but  the  atmosphere  is  extremely 
humid. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  265 


The  storms  are  most  violent  and  most  regular  at 
Padang  ; they  break  especially  in  March  and  April,  and 
always  in  the  afternoon,  between  2 and  6 p.m.  They 
are  also  frequent  at  Palembang,  especially  from  October 
to  December. 

The  llora  of  Sumatra  resembles  that  of  India  in  the 
north  of  the  island,  and  that  of  Java  in  the  south  ; but  it 
remains,  in  its  wealth  and  variety, quite  distinct  from  either. 
The  vegetable  growths  are  larger  and  more  undisciplined 
than  those  of  Java.  There  are  flowers  of  the  dimensions 
of  the  huge  Rafflesia,1  and  also  immense  jungles  of  alang- 
alang  (Imperata  arundinacea  Cyr.)  and  of  glaga  ( Saccha - 
rum  spontaneum  L.)  ; herbaceous  plants  some  3 or  4 
feet  high,  which  stifle  the  trees,  kill  seeds  and  growing 
crops,  and  serve  only  as  the  haunt  of  wild  beasts.  These 
jungles  descend  as  low  as  800  feet  above  sea-level,  while 
in  Java  they  grow  no  lower  than  3,000  feet.  Here,  from 
the  economic  point  of  view,  is  a serious  obstacle  to  the 
development  of  Java.  On  the  other  hand,  in  addition  to 
the  usual  series  of  palms,  Sumatra  possesses  a greater 
variety  of  forest  timber  than  other  islands  of  the 
Archipelago,  and  produces  gums  and  resins  of  great 
commercial  value.  Camphor,  rubber,  pepper,  cinna- 
mon, areca-nut,  benzoin,  and  lacquer  are  found  in 
abundance. 

The  wild  beasts  of  Sumatra  are  plainly  differentiated 
from  those  of  Java.  In  the  centre  especially,  and  on  the 
north-western  coast,  the  elephant  is  native  ; and  the 
rhinoceros,  tiger,  panther,  tapir,  and  a few  orang-outang 
are  found. 

The  population  of  Sumatra,  although  so  inferior  in 
numbers,  has  nothing  of  the  ethnographical  simplicity, 

1 The  largest  flower  known,  discovered  by  the  naturalist,  Joseph 
Arnold,  in  1818,  and  named  after  Sir  Stamford  Raffles,  Lieutenant- 
Governor  of  Java  during  the  English  occupation.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  remarkable  History  of  Java  (London,  1817,  2 vols.,  4to).  The 
blossom  of  Rafflesia  Palma  Bl.  measures  20  to  24  inches  in  diameter  ; 
that  of  R.  Arnoldi  R.  attains  to  a diameter  of  36  to  40  inches 
Native  names  : krubut,  ambun-ambun  : ijendawan  matahari. 


266 


JAVA 


verging  upon  unity,  which  we  find  in  that  of  Java.  It 
is  obvious  from  the  first  that  there  are  very  perceptible 
points  of  difference  between  the  peoples  of  the  coast  and 
the  peoples  of  the  interior  ; which  is  easily  explained,  as 
the  seaboard  populations  have  for  centuries  come  into 
contact  with  all  kinds  of  foreigners,  while  those  of  the 
interior  are  only  beginning  to  be  known.  The  seaboard 
populations  on  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  in  the  Lampong 
districts  of  Palembang  and  Djambi,  were  at  an  early  date 
modified  in  respect  of  their  physical  type  and  their 
customs  by  the  establishment  of  Hindu-Javanese 
colonies.  The  Achinese  and  Malays  are  distributed 
in  considerable  numbers  in  the  north  and  north-west, 
where  they  originally  settled  for  purposes  of  trade, 
and  almost  everywhere  on  these  coasts  Chinese,  Klings, 
or  Klingalese,  Bengalis,  and  Arabs,  have  at  some  time 
settled,  whence  have  resulted  peoples  of  mixed  race,  far 
more  open  to  the  general  life  of  the  East  than  the  tribes 
of  the  interior.  These  latter,  who  have  not  come  into 
contact  with  foreigners,  who  are  ignorant  of  the  arts  of 
learning  and  commerce,  or  of  European  civilisation,  or 
indeed  of  any  high  civilisation,  have  in  the  past  been 
slightly  influenced  by  the  Hindus,  and  in  certain 
districts  have  not  altogether  escaped  the  influence  of 
Islam.  They  have  necessarily  remained  at  a lower  intel- 
lectual level  than  the  coast  populations ; their  condition, 
social,  economic,  and  moral,  is  still  extremely  rudi- 
mentary. Yet  on  the  coasts  and  in  the  interior  the 
population  of  Sumatra  seems  to  have  a common  Malayo- 
Polynesian  origin  ; but  diversities  of  climate  and  habitat, 
together  with  different  economic  and  historical  condi- 
tions, have  evolved  from  this  common  parentage  races 
very  different  in  aspect  and  in  language,  despite  their 
real  and  close  relationship.  The  more  important  of 
these  races  are  the  Lampongs,  the  Redjongs,  the  Lebongs, 
the  Gayos,  the  Malays,  the  Bataks,  and  the  Achinese;  the  two 
most  characteristic  being  perhaps  (for  different  reasons) 
the  Malays  and  the  Bataks. 

The  Lampongs  inhabit  the  districts  of  the  same  name 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  267 


at  the  southern  extremity  of  Sumatra,  on  the  Straits  of 
Sunda,  facing  the  country  of  the  Sundanese,  with  whom 
they  are  in  constant  touch.  Their  alphabet  proves  that 
they  were  formerly  under  the  influence  of  the  Hindus, 
and  attained  a fairly  high  degree  of  civilisation.  They 
live,  poorly  enough,  by  agriculture,  and  in  the  towns, 
to  a certain  extent  by  exchange.  Their  language  seems 
to  be  related  in  many  ways  to  the  Sundanese,  to  Batak, 
and  to  Malay.  The  Lampongs  are  almost  converted  to 
Islam,  but  they  preserve  their  adat,  which  is  often  in 
contradiction  to  the  prescriptions  of  that  religion.  The 
Musulman  faith  is  treated  with  greater  respect  in  the 
coast  towns,  where  marriages  are  celebrated  in  the  Arab 
fashion,  than  in  the  interior.  Marriage  is  an  institution 
which  in  Sumatra  affects  the  most  varied  forms,  and 
therefore  affords  a good  example  of  the  struggle  of  the 
atavistic  concept  against  the  fashions  imported  by  the 
foreigner.  It  is  always  exogamic;  but  while  the  common 
people  regard  it  as  a patriarchal  institution,  with  wife- 
purchase  (often  ruinous),  the  woman  becoming  the 
absolute  property  of  her  husband,  the  wealthy  and  the 
notables  preserve  the  matriarchal  institution,  as  at 
Menangkabau,  where  possession  of  land  and  of  children 
is  the  attribute  of  the  mother. 

Marriage  is  greatly  honoured  among  the  Lampongs, 
seduction  and  its  results  being  considered  as  a disgrace 
to  the  whole  village.  It  is  general  among  the  Lampongs 
for  both  sexes  to  file  the  teeth. 

The  Lebongs  live  upon  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
Ketuan,  in  a province  bearing  their  name,  and  blessed 
with  a very  healthy  climate.  The  special  dialect  of  the 
Lebongs  is  strongly  mixed  with  Malay,  which  language 
they  speak  in  addition  to  their  own. 

Their  houses,  raised  on  piles,  which  are  carved  and 
decorated  in  white  and  red,  have  walls  of  bark,  and  flat 
roofs  of  split  bamboo.  Islamism  has  begun  to  make 
its  way  among  them,  without  greatly  modifying  their 
old  animistic  superstitions.  They  are  a gentle  and 
hospitable  people. 


268 


JAVA 


The  Redjangs,  of  a much  fiercer  temper,  live  in 
Redjang,  on  the  upper  course  of  the  Musi ; in  them 
Marsden  mistakenly  saw  the  type  of  the  primitive 
Malay.  Their  writing — of  Indian  origin — has  often  been 
regarded  as  the  actually  unknown  script  which  must 
have  been  employed  by  the  Malays  before  Islam  brought 
them  the  Arabic  characters.  Formerly  animists,  living 
in  a country  wherein  Hindoo  ruins  are  still  discovered, 
and  now  converted  to  Islam,  the  Redjangs  practise  an 
Islamism  full  of  relics  of  the  past.  For  example,  at 
regular  intervals  they  bear  offerings  of  rice  and  fruits 
to  the  crater  of  Kaba,  which  they  venerate.  They 
cultivate  tobacco  and  coffee,  and  work  the  best  gold- 
and  silver-mines  in  Sumatra. 

The  Korintjis,  who  inhabit  the  country  surrounding 
Indrapura,  and  are  reinforced  by  the  Malays  of 
Menangkabau,  form  a smaller  group  than  the  Redjangs ; 
but  they  are  even  more  warlike  than  the  latter, 
and  far  more  difficult  to  handle.  The  majority  are 
Musulmans  by  name,  but  animists  in  fact. 

The  Orang-Ulu  and  the  Orang-Lubu  of  Mount  Ophir 
are  savages ; near  relatives  of  the  Batiks ; peaceable 
and  extremely  poor. 

The  Malays  of  the  seaboard  and  the  Malays  of 
Menangkabau1  represent  the  pure  Malay  element  in 
Java.  The  Malays  of  the  seaboard  closely  resemble 
those  of  Malacca  and  of  Riouw-Lingga ; they  live 
chiefly  in  the  country  of  Palembang,  the  centre  of  the 
trading  highways  of  the  island. 

The  Malays  of  Menangkabau  (Dutch,  Menangkabau 
M aiders)  regard  themselves  as  the  primitive  Malays. 
It  is  more  probable  that  they  are  a detached  branch  of 
the  Malays  of  the  coast,  which  has  been  isolated  for 
ages  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  and  has  developed 
in  perfect  independence.  The  kingdom  of  Menang- 
kabau, says  the  native  legend,  arose  upon  the  ruins  of 

1 A kingdom  now  extinct.  It  was  situated  between  the  kingdom 
of  Palembang  and  the  Siak  River  on  the  east ; between  the  kingdom 
of  Mendjuto  and  the  Singkel  River  on  the  west. 


MALAYS  OF  MENAXGKABAU,  KOTA  GEDANG. 


To  race  p.  268. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  269 


the  Hindu  empire  of  Adityavarman,  and  its  name, 
u Victory  of  the  Buffalo,”  symbolised  the  supremacy 
of  Sumatra  and  the  Malays  over  Java,  which  they  are 
supposed  for  a time  to  have  conquered.  Early  con- 
verted to  Islam  while  preserving  their  own  adat,  the 
Malays  of  Menangkabau  regard  themselves  as  the  best 
Mahomedans  in  the  Archipelago. 

Marriage  with  them  is  always  exogamic,  and  has 
retained  the  matriarchal  form.  The  husband  cultivates 
the  soil  for  the  wife,  who  owns  it  as  she  owns  her 
children ; the  property  of  the  father  passes  to  the 
children  of  his  sister,  not  to  those  of  his  wife  or 
brother. 

It  is  true  that  contemporary  observers  represent  the 
Malay  of  Menangkabau  as  possessing  but  little  conjugal 
fidelity ; as  anything  but  a sentimental  father ; as 
defiant,  a born  intriguer,  avaricious,  harsh  to  his  inferiors, 
servile  to  his  superiors,  inhospitable  and  hostile  to 
the  foreigner  ; a babbler,  indifferent  to  cleanliness,  an 
intemperate  drinker  and  eater,  and  a desperate  smoker 
and  betel-chewer.  There  is  light,  however,  in  this 
gloomy  picture.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the  Malay 
of  Menangkabau  is  industrious,  full  of  endurance, 
an  excellent  workman,  an  experienced  trader,  and  an 
excellent  farmer.  He  has  not,  like  the  Javanese,  a 
burning  desire  to  educate  himself  or  to  improve  his 
position  ; yet  when  he  does  decide  to  study  he  does 
so  with  the  most  zealous  tenacity.  He  has  a keen 
artistic  sense  and  skilful  fingers,  and  executes  charming 
work  in  glass,  filigree,  and  copper,  and  is  a fine 
sculptor  in  wood  and  sometimes  in  precious  metals. 
The  women  share  in  these  gifts,  for  the  ka'ins,  the  cloth 
of  gold  of  Ugam,  the  rich  stuffs  of  Si  Lungkang  and 
Simgei  Pagou,  are  greatly  valued.  They  also  undertake 
the  milling  of  sugar-cane  and  make  pottery,  but  the 
men  only  work  in  the  mines,  are  carpenters  and  cabinet- 
makers, build  praus,  and  work  in  copper  and  wood. 

The  Malays  of  Menangkabau  are  all  Mahomedans, 
but  they  are  scarcely  more  zealous  than  the  Javanese  : 


270 


JAVA 


yet  on  occasion  their  distrustful  minds  will  bring  a 
dangerous  enthusiasm  to  bear  upon  the  question  of 
religion.  It  was  among  them  that  the  famous  Padris1 
arose  : a sect  of  reformers,  who,  in  1820  or  thereabouts, 
in  the  hope  of  leading  their  compatriots  back  to  a 
stricter  observance  of  the  ritual  of  their  faith,  rebelled 
against  the  Sultan  of  Menangkabau,  who  was  at  the 
same  time  priest  and  king.  The  latter,  despairing  of 
victory,  appealed  for  assistance  to  the  Dutch,  who  after 
a sanguinary  war  of  nine  years’  duration  exterminated 
the  Padris,  but  subdued  Menangkabau. 

From  the  social  point  of  view  the  Malays  of  Menang- 
kabau are  organised  into  sukiis,  or  clans,  the  chosen  chief 
of  which,  who  is  selected  from  a privileged  family,  is 
always  assisted  by  a council  composed  of  the  adult  males 
of  the  clan.  Several  sukus  form  a district,  which  has  for 
its  council  the  chiefs  of  the  sukus  composing  it.  The 
district,  according  to  the  number  of  the  kotas,  or  villages, 
is  known  as  a “ district  of  20  or  30  kotas” 

The  Bataks  are  the  Malays  of  the  western  branch,  who 
inhabit  the  Residency  of  Tapanuli  in  the  south  of  Atjeh,  a 
large  part  of  the  eastern  coast  of  Sumatra,  and  portions  of 
the  neighbouring  islands  which  are  external  to  the  Dutch 
empire  properly  so  called.  According  to  the  differences 
in  their  dialects,  the  Bataks  are  divided  into  three  principal 
groups  : the  Tobas  of  Siboga,  Baros,  and  Sorkam  ; the 
Manda'ilings  of  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra  ; and  the  Dairis 
of  the  north  and  north-west  of  Baros  and  the  centre  of 
Singkel.  To  these  groups  others  are  related  : the  Timor- 
Bataks,  the  Raja-Bataks,  and  the  Pakpak  Bataks  of  the 
Sea  of  Toba  : the  Karo-Bataks  and  the  Dusun-Bataks  of 
the  high  plains  and  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra. 

Any  real  knowledge  of  the  Bataks  dates  from  1867- 

1 From  the  Portuguese  padre,  in  the  religious  sense  of  father. 
Passed  into  the  Malay  tongue  as  padri,  this  word  has  come  to  mean 
priest  or  ecclesiastic.  The  leaders  of  the  Padris’  rebellion,  who 
were  all  members  of  the  Islamite  clergy,  were  at  first  the  sole 
bearers  of  this  title  ; but  later  on  it  enlarged  its  meaning,  and 
signified  the  adepts  of  the  sect  as  a whole. 


DWELLING- HOUSE  AND  RICE  GRANARY,  BATIPU,  SUMATRA. 


To  face  p.  270. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  271 


1883  ; 1 they  had  at  first  a terrible  reputation  for  can- 
nibalism, due  principally  to  the  reports  of  ancient  Arab 
travellers;  they  accused  them  of  eating  their  aged 
relations  so  soon  as  the  latter  were  no  longer  of  service 
to  them  ; in  order  to  give  them  a pious  sepulture  in  their 
stomachs.  At  the  season  when  lemons  (the  indispensable 
accompaniment  of  such  a festival)  were  ripe,  the  aged 
victim  would  climb  a tree ; the  family  would  dance 
around  below,  singing  “Where  the  fruit  is  ripe  it  falls 
from  the  tree " ; until  the  victim  allowed  himself  to  fall, 
when  he  was  knocked  on  the  head,  cut  up,  and  consumed 
according  to  custom.2  The  Bataks  were  also  accused  of 
eating  their  prisoners  of  war,  men  of  the  people  who 

1 See  M.  Joustra,  Litteratuuroverzicht  der  Bataklanden  (Leyden, 
1907,  8vo).  A Batak  Institute  was  founded  in  Leyden  in  1909  for 
the  purpose  of  co-ordinating  and  encouraging  the  study  of  the 
Batak  peoples. 

2 It  is  usually  considered  that  the  victim  of  anthropophagy  must 
be  unwilling.  We  may  take  this  unwillingness  for  granted  in  the 
case  of  shipwrecked  strangers,  prisoners  of  war,  and  missionaries 
not  of  the  stuff  of  martyrs  ; but  in  such  cases  as  the  above  (which 
if  not  true  of  the  Bataks  is  true  of  many  cannibals)  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  the  moribund  would  object  to  any  other  end.  Indeed, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  that  the  rite  might  have  originated 
not  with  the  eaters,  but  with  the  eaten.  It  is  conceivable  that  a 
savage  who  had  lived  a full  and  warlike  life  would  regard  with 
abhorrence  the  dispersal  of  his  remains  by  decay,  which  in  an 
early  stage  of  animism  would  by  some  be  regarded  as  annihila- 
tion. Consumption  by  the  family,  on  the  other  hand,  might  well  be 
accompanied  by  a conception  of  immortality.  The  old,  helpless 
man,  with  the  joys  of  life  failing  him,  would  find  a certain  attraction 
in  the  idea  that  his  body  would  become  part  of  the  strong  brown 
bodies  around  him.  He  might  even  have  a dim  conception  that  he 
would  be  partly  conscious  in  each  of  his  sepultures  : an  idea  by  no 
means  far-fetched,  but  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  the  old  were  eaten 
to  partake  of  their  wisdom,  and  fallen  warriors  to  partake  of  their 
strength.  Chance  shipwrecked  mariners  were  doubtless  disposed 
of  with  the'  thrifty  idea  of  saving  any  virtues  they  might  possess. 
In  Africa,  if  a crocodile  eats  a man,  the  crocodile  is  afterwards 
regarded  as  the  deceased ; if  the  deceased  were  ill-tempered  the 
crocodile  is  greatly  feared.  Cannibalism  may  become  degraded 
and  hypocritical,  but  must  not  in  itself  be  regarded  as  a proof  of 
low  civilisation. — [Trans.] 


272 


JAVA 


committed  adultery  with  the  wife  of  a chief,  foreigners 
and  strangers  suspected  of  hostile  intentions,  &c.  The 
Bataks,  who  to-day  are  Christians  or  Islamites,  deny  these 
practices  with  indignation,  or  refer  them  to  a period  very 
remote  ; and  it  seems  established,  by  the  study  of  selected 
cases,  that  the  Bataks  were  not  actually  cannibals,  but 
that  they  practised  ritual  killing  and  the  symbolic 
consumption  of  the  victim's  flesh. 

Out  of  500,000  Bataks  about  125,000  are  Mahomedans, 
although  the  propaganda  of  Islam  followed  rather  than 
preceded  that  of  Christianity.  They  number  80,000 
Christians  ; the  remainder  are  animistic  pagans,  whose 
beliefs  are  modified  by  very  vague  memories  of 
Hinduism.  These  latter  are  susceptible  to  Christian 
influences  : a fact  which  has  greatly  facilitated  the 
access  and  the  domination  of  the  Dutch.  Their  char- 
acter is  peaceable  and  easy  : they  are  farmers  and  breeders 
of  cattle,  and  terminate  the  labour  of  the  rice-fields  by 
collective  banquets,  at  which  many  buffalo  are  con- 
sumed, with  kids  and  even  pigs  for  the  Christians. 
Whatever  religious  label  the  Batak  assumes,  he  is  a 
superstitious  person  rather  than  a believer  ; the  Islamism 
of  the  Bataks,  wherever  it  is  professed,  is  limited  to 
circumcision,  which  rite  is  also  practised  by  the  pagan 
Karo-Bataks  ; abstention  from  strong  drink,  and  from 
the  flesh  of  the  pig ; the  veneration  of  Hadjis  and  santris, 
and  the  erection  in  almost  every  village  of  a very 
countrified-looking  mosque.  In  everything  else  the 
village  adat  comes  first.  The  practice  of  filing  the 
teeth  is  general  : marriage  affects  the  partriarchal  or 
the  matriarchal  form  according  to  the  village  in  question 
or  the  rank  of  those  concerned. 

The  houses  of  the  Bataks  are  of  a neat  rustic  type, 
their  graceful  roofs  recalling  those  of  the  Bahnars  of 
French  Indo-China,  as  does  their  great  communal  house, 
where  they  receive  friendly  strangers  and  keep  their  most 
valued  possessions,  which  are  generally  of  a fetishistic 
nature. 

A few  manuscripts  upon  wood  or  palm-leaves,  traced 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  273 


in  an  alphabet  of  Hindu  origin,  prove  that  the  Bataks 
once  knew  a civilisation  more  advanced  than  that  they 
enjoy  to-day.1 

The  Gayos,  thanks  to  the  masterly  study  by  Dr. 
Snouck  Hurgronje,  professor  at  the  University  of 
Leyden,  are  better  known  than  the  Bataks.  The 
country  of  the  Gayos  is  situated  on  the  western  coast 
of  Sumatra,  between  the  Straits  of  Malacca  and  the 
Indian  Ocean,  but  does  not  at  any  point  touch  the  sea ; 
it  is  isolated  by  a long  belt  of  Achinese  territory  which 
with  the  Alas  and  Tannang  provinces  completely  sur- 
rounds it,  except  upon  the  south-eastern  frontier.  In 
spite  of  some  differences  of  type  and  dialect,  which  vary 
with  their  habitat,  the  Gayos  present  a real  chrono- 
graphical  unity,  and  a rudimentary  civilisation  slightly 
superior  to  that  of  the  Bahnars  and  the  Stiengs  of  French 
Indo-China,  and  on  about  the  same  level  as  that  of  the 
Chams  of  the  same  country. 

The  principal  event  of  the  religious  life  of  the  Gayos, 
who  are  all  Islamites,  is  the  rite  of  circumcision,  which  is 
practised  by  an  accredited  operator  towards  the  eighth 
or  tenth  year.  They  also  celebrate  the  mulud,  or  festival 
of  the  Nativity  of  Mahomet.  In  the  large  villages  the 
fast  of  Ramadhan  is  better  observed  than  in  Java.  Even 
the  opium-smokers  abstain  for  a few  days.  In  the 
smaller  villages  the  feast  which  closes  the  fast  is  the 
principal  affair. 

The  Gayo  contrives  to  mingle  the  family  adat  with  the 
influence  of  the  Koran.  Both  sexes  file  the  teeth. 
Marriage  is  patriarchal  compared  with  the  marriage  of 
the  Malays  of  Menangkabau.  The  woman  can  only  leave 
her  village  for  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  which  a woman 
scarcely  ever  makes  ; the  family  is  perpetuated  through 
the  males,  and  in  default  of  a son  the  Gayo  will  often 
adopt  his  son-in-law,  or  a stranger,  who  is  nearly  always 
an  Achinese,  a Malay,  more  rarely  an  Arab,  a Malabarese 

1 The  Bataks  have  special  languages  for  women,  thieves,  and 
sorcerers,  and  a “language  of  leaves”  : the  latter  for  the  use  of 
fiances. 


*9 


274 


JAVA 


or  a Chinese ; but  he  is  always  adopted  upon  the  con- 
dition that  he  becomes  a Musulman.  The  funerals  are 
according  to  the  Musulman  rite,  excepting  certain  super- 
stitious practices,  such  as  removing  the  corpse  by  a 
special  opening,  instead  of  by  the  habitual  stairs  or 
ladder. 

The  Gayos  enforce  the  excellently  moral  custom  of 
causing  all  the  boys  and  young  men  to  sleep  in  the 
common  house  up  to  the  time  of  their  marriage.  Like 
all  the  Indonesians,  they  have  retained  a superstitious 
belief  in  good  and  evil  spirits,  and  seek  to  conciliate 
them  by  means  of  oblations  and  prayers  which  are 
repudiated  by  the  orthodox  Mahomedan. 

The  Gayos  accompany  all  their  festivals  with  kunduris, 
or  banquets,  to  which  a religious  colour  is  given  by  the 
recitation  before  meat  of  passages  from  the  Koran,  and 
the  presence  of  men  of  piety  ; so  that  these  banquets 
remind  one  strongly  of  the  slamettans  of  Java.1 

The  Achinese  inhabit  the  kingdom  of  Acheen  in  the 
north  of  Sumatra  (582,175  inhabitants,  of  whom  761  are 
Europeans,  875  Chinese,  1,261  Oriental  foreigners,  and 
101  Arabs),  which  they  reckon  as  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Tamiang  and  the  west  by  Baros.2 3  The  territory,  which 
will  soon  go  the  way  of  that  of  the  Sultans  of  Menang- 
kabau,  comprises  a stretch  of  country  in  the  north  which 
the  Achinese  regard  as  Acheen  or  Atjeh  proper,  and 
which  the  Dutch  have  called  Great  Atjeh  ( Groot  Atjeh). 
This  portion  is  shaped  precisely  like  a fan,  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Atjeh  marking  the  point  of  the  fan,  where  the 
impurities  of  the  rice-fields  collect.  It  comprises,  to  the 
left,  the  Twenty-five  Mukims ; 3 to  the  right  are  the 
Twenty-six  Mukims  ; the  Twenty-two  Mukims  occupy- 

1 See  C.  Snouck  Hurgronje,  Het  Gajolund  en  zijnt  bewohnen 
(Batavia  1903,  8vo  illustr.). 

2 Other  names  of  Acheen  are  : Atjeh,  Acheh,  Atcheh,  Achin, 
Acheen,  Achem,  &c. 

3 The  mukim  (Dutch  form  moekim  ; an  Arab  word)  is  a territorial 
subdivision  under  the  authority  of  an  imaum,  and  corresponds  more 
or  less  to  the  English  parish. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  275 


ing  the  wide  belt  of  borderland.  These  three  confedera- 
tions have  received  the  name  of  the  “ Three  Angles  of 
Atjeh,"  and  the  chiefs  who  preside  over  them  are  the 
“ Heads  of  Atjeh.” 

The  Achinese  also  have  been  the  object  of  a lengthy 
study  by  Professor  Hurgronje,  whose  profound  under- 
standing of  Islam  and  the  Islamitish  Insulindian  nations 
has  enabled  him  to  write  a work  containing  most  impor- 
tant information,  whose  conclusions  have  more  than 
once  been  a guide  to  Holland  in  her  interminable 
struggle  with  the  Achinese.1 

The  Achinese  claim  to  be  of  Hindu  origin.  It  is 
eminently  probable  that  they  were  converted  to  Islam  by 
the  Hindus,  and  that  their  race  has  received  additions  of 
Dravidian,  Malay,  Bugis,  Arab,  and  even  Egyptian 
origin.  The  kingdom  of  Acheen  boasts  of  its  foundation 
in  the  thirteenth  century  by  a Sultan  descended  in  the 
direct  line,  as  are  almost  all  the  Malay  princes,  from 
Iskander  or  Alexander  the  Great.  It  is  certain  that  at  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Sultan  ruled 
over  half  Sumatra  and  the  small  neighbouring  islands  ; 
that  he  had  permanent  relations  with  Turkey  and  China, 
Egypt  and  Japan  ; but  in  the  eighteenth  century  the 
kingdom  declined.  We  can  understand  that  with  such 
memories  as  these,  and  a somewhat  bellicose  tempera- 
ment, the  Achinese,  although  now  deprived  of  nine- 
tenths  of  their  ancient  territory,  have  but  unwillingly 
accepted  the  Dutch  rule,  against  which  they  have  been 
desperately  struggling  since  1883,  even  though  all  the 
towns  and  important  strategic  points  of  their  country — 
Sigli,  Edi,  Kota  Radja,  Oleh-Leh  and  Sabang,  are  occupied 
by  the  Dutch  soldiery. 

The  Achinese,  accordingly  as  they  live  in  the  moun- 
tains under  the  name  of  Orang-tunong,  or  in  the  plain 
under  the  name  of  Orang-baroh,  exhibit  characteristic 
differences.  The  former  are  the  more  warlike  and  are 
frequently  fanatical ; they  hate  the  foreigner,  are  incor- 

1 Dr.  C.  Snouck  Hurgronje,  The  Achehnese  (Leyden,  1906, 

2 vols.  4to). 


276 


JAVA 


rigible  brigands,  and  think  nothing  of  robbery  or  murder  ; 
the  people  of  the  plain,  of  a more  peaceable  nature,  and 
accustomed  to  international  relations,  have  in  an  exag- 
gerated degree,  it  is  said,  the  usual  faults  of  the  Malays  : 
treacherous  flattery,  servility,  intemperance,  the  abuse  of 
opium  and  of  strong  liquors. 

Among  the  Achinese,  as  among  nearly  all  the 
Mahomedan  Sumatrese,  we  find  the  coexistence  of  the 
power  of  the  adat  and  of  the  religious  law. 

The  woman  is  married  very  young,  at  eight  or  ten 
years  of  age,  the  boy  being  from  sixteen  to  twenty.  The 
marriage  is  arranged  by  go-betweens,  and  is  of  the 
patriarchal  type,  the  woman  receiving  a betrothal  present 
as  well  as  her  parents.  The  ceremony  is  celebrated 
after  the  Arab  fashion,  in  spite  of  various  additions  which 
have  no  relation  to  Islam.  The  husband  works  for  a 
certain  period  with  his  parents-in-law,  in  order  to  com- 
pensate them  for  the  loss  he  is  causing  them ; the 
marriage  contract  also  stipulates  that  the  husband  cannot 
separate  the  wife  from  her  parents  without  her  consent. 

A nuptial  gift  to  the  wife,  after  the  consummation  of 
the  marriage,  is  obligatory ; according  to  the  wealth  of 
the  husband  it  may  be  of  gold  and  silver,  and  consist  of 
a necklace  or  a bracelet. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  chief  of  the  kampong  has 
the  right  to  oppose  any  marriage  that  may  appear  to  him 
contrary  to  the  peace  or  security  of  the  tribe  ; it  is  he 
who  fixes  the  most  favourable  day  and  hour  for  the 
wedding. 

The  maiden  of  good  family  marries  only  among  her 
equals ; never  a foreigner,  unless  an  Arab,  a Malabarese, 
or  a Komitji,  wealthy  and  well  versed  in  sacred  things. 
Other  applicants  can  only  obtain  the  descendants  of 
slaves.  The  Achinese  are  Musulmans,  often  fanatical 
towards  foreigners,  but  nearly  always  lukewarm  in  the 
practice  of  their  religion.  They  do  not,  of  course,  omit 
circumcision,  but  their  women  are  not  veiled,  any  more 
than  are  the  women  of  Gayos,  Bataks,  or  the  Malays. 
They  celebrate  the  rnulud , which  is  perhaps  their 


ACHINESE  BOYS.  NATIVE  LOOM,  ACHEEN. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  277 


greatest  festival ; and  also  the  closing  feast  of  Ramadhan, 
but  very  few  strictly  observe  the  prescribed  fast.  Many 
content  themselves  with  fasting  three  times  a month — at 
the  beginning,  in  the  middle,  and  at  the  end — and  very 
few  abstain  from  smoking  tobacco  during  the  period  of 
penitence.  To  the  Achinese,  as  to  the  Gayos,  the  Malays, 
and  the  Javanese,  the  religious  festivals  are  excellent 
occasions  for  banquets,  which  are  known  in  Acheen 
as  kanduris.  They  are  opened  by  a prayer,  or  the 
recitation  of  passages  from  the  Koran  ; and  consist  of 
dishes  of  a determined  quantity  and  quality.  The  most 
solemn  of  these  kanduris  is  that  of  the  mulud ; but  the 
Achinese  hold  banquets  upon  all  excusable  occasions. 
Recovery  from  illness,  or  falling  sick  ; sending  a son  to 
school ; returning  from  a voyage ; the  success  of  a 
stroke  of  business ; the  threat  of  an  enemy ; a bad 
dream  ; all  such  trifling  events  may  be  so  celebrated. 

The  islands  which  cluster  about  Sumatra  are  peopled 
by  various  races,  according  to  their  geographical  position. 

The  northern  islands  in  particular  have  been  peopled 
by  emigrants  from  Menangkabau  and  Acheen  ; but  Bang- 
kan  remains  deserted,  because  it  is  supposed  to  be  the 
refuge  of  evil  spirits. 

The  Niassais,  inhabitants  of  the  Nias  Islands,  are 
Malayo-Polynesian  by  race,  and  number  some  240,000. 
They  live  sociably  in  villages;  they  are  gay,  and  hospitable 
of  aspect,  but  their  moral  standard  cannot  be  called  high. 
They  are  born  thieves,  hypocritical,  cowardly,  and  cruel, 
and  are  constantly  waging  war  between  village  and  village, 
between  family  and  family,  and  carrying  on  interminable 
vendettas. 

Farmers  and  fishermen,  they  live  on  rice,  maize,  sago, 
and  coco-nuts,  to  which  they  add,  at  their  banquets, 
fowls  and  pork  and  large  quantities  of  palm  wine.  They 
are  inordinately  fond  of  dress  and  ornament ; the  cere- 
monial costume  of  a chief  is  often  worth  ^240  to  ^320, 
and  that  of  his  wife  nearly  half  as  much.  They  do  not 
dice,  neither  do  they  smoke  opium. 

Good  craftsmen,  they  weave,  dye,  and  colour  stuffs  and 


278 


JAVA 


matting,  work  in  copper,  make  arms,  and  build  fairly 
presentable  houses,  which  are,  however,  exceedingly 
filthy  inside.  The  interior  of  the  house  is  often  decorated 
with  the  tusks  of  boars,  or  even  with  human  skulls. 
Their  women,  who  are  well  built,  are  greatly  sought 
by  the  Malays. 

The  religion  of  the  Niassais  is  a rudimentary  animism, 
fearful  above  all  of  evil  spirits,  or  badjus , and  of  Nadaya 
their  chief.  These  spirits  are  propitiated  through  the 
priests  and  priestesses,  who  form  a special  but  not  a 
privileged  class. 

Extremely  superstitious,  the  Niassais  fear  and  maltreat 
albino  children,  although  the  latter  are  very  numerous  ; 
twins  they  kill,  and  the  funerals  of  chiefs  are  often  accom- 
panied by  human  sacrifices.  Each  house  has  its  house- 
hold god,  in  the  shape  of  a puppet  carved  in  wood  ; in 
this  the  souls  of  the  ancestors  of  the  household  are  incar- 
nate, and  it  also  protects  the  hearth.  The  Niassais  never 
move  without  taking  their  idols  with  them  ; they  also 
honour  the  phallus  carved  in  wood,  and  the  village  has  its 
protecting  deity,  with  his  wife.  These,  which  are  also  of 
wood,  are  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  village  so  that 
they  may  watch  over  its  safety. 

Although  the  family  is  so  poorly  constituted  among  the 
Niassais,  adultery  and  seduction  are  punished  by  death. 

The  Niassais  are  now  beginning  to  emigrate  to 
Sumatra,  in  order  to  make  money  as  carpenters,  masons, 
labourers,  &c. 

The  islands  of  the  volcanic  archipelago  of  Mentawei  are 
inhabited  by  a population  of  about  twelve  thousand 
persons,  who  in  many  points  resemble,  according  to 
Rosenberg,  who  spent  six  months  among  them,  the 
natives  of  the  Marquesas  Islands  of  Hawaii,  a fine- 
looking,  gentle  race,  their  code  of  morality  is  very 
inflexible ; they  know  nothing  of  divorce,  and  punish 
adultery  by  death.  Men  and  women  have  the  whole 
body  tattooed  in  childhood  ; they  deck  the  head  and  the 
ears  with  flowers  in  the  Polynesian  fashion.  Their  reli- 
gion consists  chiefly  in  a fear  of  the  evil  spirits  that 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  279 


people  the  universe,  and  also  the  souls  of  the  dead  ; but 
they  do  not  offer  them  sacrifices  of  any  notable  value. 
They  have  neither  temples  nor  figures  of  the  gods  ; they 
make  their  rare  oblations  in  a special  corner  of  the  forest. 
Certain  meals  are  forbidden  to  the  women.  They  live  by 
hunting  and  fishing,  and,  to  a certain  extent,  by  agriculture. 

The  group  of  islands  which  the  Portuguese  called  the 
Engano,  or  Deceitful  Islands  ( engano  signifying  "de- 
ception," "illusion"),  consists  of  one  principal  island, 
Keifu  Kaikukka  or  Eloppo,  and  six  small  islands,  all  of 
which  are  surrounded  by  dangerous  reefs.  This  little 
archipelago  is  of  no  economic  importance,  and  is  only 
occasionally  visited  by  the  Dutch  officials.  The  inhabi- 
tants, who  are  tall  and  of  a bronze-coloured  complexion, 
are  accustomed  to  go  naked,  hence  the  name  of  Pulu 
Telandjung,  meaning  " Island  of  the  Naked,”  which  the 
Malays  have  given  their  group  of  islands.  They  practise 
a primitive  animism.  Their  numbers  are  steadily  de- 
creasing : they  were  3,000  in  1862,  and  only  692  in  1893  ; 
to-day  there  are  scarcely  600.  The  Engano  Islands  are 
under  the  administration  of  the  Resident  of  Bencoolen. 

The  islands  of  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra  are  much 
larger  and  of  much  greater  geographical  and  economic 
importance  than  those  of  the  west  coast.  They  include 
the  archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga,  with  the  small  islands 
lying  between  Borneo  and  that  archipelago,  of  which 
they  really  form  outlying  fragments.  Further  to  the 
south  of  Sumatra  are  the  two  large  islands  of  Bank  and 
Billiton. 

The  archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga,  to  the  south  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  is  a granitic  prolongation  of  the  latter  : 
although  the  alluvial  deposits  of  the  rivers  of  Sumatra  are 
tending  to  unite  it  with  the  mainland.  Although  its  total 
area  is  greatly  superior  to  that  of  Singapore,  its  population 
in  1909  amounted  only  to  112,216,  of  whom  221  were 
Europeans  and  18,491  Chinese. 

The  archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga  is  composed  of  two 
groups  of  islands  : the  archipelago  of  Riouw  and  Lingga, 
properly  so-called,  and  the  Pulu  Tudjuh  islands. 


280 


JAVA 


The  archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga  consists  of  some 
hundreds  of  little  islands,  which  have  been  divided  into 
five  subsidiary  groups  : the  Karimon,  Batam,  Bintang, 
Lingga,  and  Singkep  groups.  All  these  islands  are 
granitic  and  covered  with  undulating  hills,  of  which  the 
highest,  the  peak  of  Lingga,  rises  only  4,400  feet  above  sea- 
level.  The  island  of  Lingga  also  contains  the  largest 
alluvial  plain  in  the  archipelago. 

Singkep,  mountainous  to  the  north-west,  is  full  of 
swamps  about  the  centre. 

The  rivers  on  islands  so  limited  in  size,  are  necessarily 
insignificant.  The  climate  of  the  archipelago  is  almost 
everywhere  excellent,  the  heat  being  tempered  by  the 
abundant  rains,  by  the  ocean  currents,  and  the  surround- 
ing sea.  Almost  the  entire  archipelago  is  covered  with  a 
luxuriant  vegetation  ; teak,  trees  secreting  various  gums 
and  resins,  palms  of  many  varieties,  anana  and  banana- 
trees,  sugar-cane,  all  grow  readily  and  without  attention. 

The  fauna,  as  varied  as  the  flora,  and  able  to  hold  its 
own  with  that  of  Java  or  Sumatra,  has  one  appreciable 
virtue  : it  contains  no  dangerous  carnivorae. 

The  natives,  known  as  the  Orang  Benua,  who  are  poor 
and  peaceable,  are  of  Malay  origin  ; their  race  being  a 
mixture  of  pure  Malays,  Bugis,  and  Chinese. 

The  landscape  of  the  archipelago,  with  its  bold  con- 
tours, its  luxurious  vegetation,  and  the  play  of  the  sunlight 
upon  the  all-encompassing  sea,  is  the  admiration  of  all 
travellers  privileged  to  behold  it. 

The  Pulu  Tudjuh  group,  which  includes  more  than 
three  hundred  islands,  large  and  small,  lies  to  the  south  of 
the  China  Sea,  between  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  Borneo. 
It  has  been  divided  into  seven  sub-groups,  the  Anambas 
counting  as  two  ; the  Natunas  as  three  ; the  Ilanung  or 
Lanung  (isles  of  the  pirates  or  Lanons , in  Dutch  the 
Zeerovers-Eilanden)  as  one,  and  the  Tambelans  as  one. 

The  Natuna  Isles  number  fifty-five  at  least,  and  are 
mostly  of  granite  formation.  The  largest,  Bunguran, 
contains  a thousand  inhabitants  : Orang  Lant,  Malays, 
and  Chinese,  who  live  by  their  fisheries,  and  their  coco- 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  281 


palms.  The  others  contain  only  fourteen  hundred  souls 
altogether,  who  are  still  more  poverty-stricken  than  the 
folk  of  Bunguran. 

The  ninety-six  little  islands,  wooded  and  mountainous, 
which  form  the  Anamba  group,  are  peopled  by  some 
four  thousand  inhabitants  : Mahomedan  Malays  or  pagan 
Orang  Laut.  They  cultivate  the  sago-palm  and  the  coco- 
nut ; they  fish,  build  praus,  and  export  a little  building 
timber  to  Singapore. 

The  forty  rocky  islands  of  Tambelan  support  about 
a thousand  inhabitants  between  them.  These  are 
nearly  all  Malays,  who  live  by  fishing,  the  culture  of  the 
coco-palm,  and  the  sale  of  swallows’  nests. 

Banka,  or  Bangka,  and  Billiton  are  far  their  superior  in 
area  and  in  economic  value,  and  each  forms  a separate 
administrative  division. 

Banka,  a granite  outcrop  detached  from  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  is  situated  off  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Banka.  A moun- 
tainous island,  with  an  area  of  4,460  square  miles.  The 
highest  point,  Mount  Maras,  is  only  some  2,000  feet 
in  height.  The  island  slopes  towards  the  east  to  a sandy 
seaboard  ; on  the  west  is  a shore  of  swamps. 

Its  rivers  are  numerous  and  abundant,  though  short. 
The  two  largest  are  the  Sungei  Selan,  which  is  18  miles 
in  length,  and  the  Djerin,  on  the  west,  whose  outlet  is 
more  than  1,000  yards  in  width. 

The  climate  of  Banka,  like  that  of  Billiton,  is  extremely 
hot,  but  is  tempered  by  the  proximity  of  the  sea.  It  is 
also  very  variable,  reaching  ioo°  Fahr.  in  the  shade  on 
the  plains,  while  in  the  higher  altitudes  it  may  fall  as 
low  as  390  or  410  during  the  night. 

Banka  is  verdant  with  a vegetation  resembling  that  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula ; its  fauna,  which  partakes  of  that  of 
Sumatra  and  that  of  the  Peninsula,  includes  no  carnivora 
excepting  the  little  brown  Malay  bear  ( Ursus  nialayanus 
Raffl.)  ; but  serpents  and  crocodiles  are  by  no  means 
unknown. 

Its  inhabitants,  to  the  number  of  115,190,  of  whom 


282 


JAVA 


43,720  are  Chinese,  317  Europeans,  and  261  Arabs,  are 
— we  are  speaking  of  the  natives — descendants  of  the 
Malays  of  Palembang.  They  live  in  a semi-savage  con- 
dition, by  their  groves  of  coco-palms,  areca-nut  trees, 
areng- palms,  bananas,  and  their  potatoes  ; and  to  some 
extent  by  fishing  and  the  chase.  Poor  and  ignorant,  they 
hold  aloof  from  the  foreigners  who  visit  their  island 
to  exploit  the  abundant  mineral  wealth  beneath  its  surface, 
and  who  set  them  the  example  not  only  of  a healthy 
activity,  but  also,  in  most  cases — and  this  is  true  especially 
of  the  Chinese  miners — that  of  a host  of  repulsive  vices. 

Billiton,  or  Blitung,  to  the  south-west  of  Banka,  has 
an  area  of  1,860  square  miles,  and  a population  of  36,860, 
of  whom  2,520  are  Chinese,  136  Europeans,  and  16  Arabs. 

In  its  physical  aspect  and  geological  constitution  it 
resembles  Banka.  Its  highest  point,  the  hill  known  as 
Tadjam,  is  only  some  1,600  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is 
watered  by  a number  of  short  streams ; at  the  mouth  of  one 
of  these,  the  Tjarutjup,  in  the  east  of  Billiton,  is  built  the 
chief  town  and  capital  of  the  island,  Tandjong  Pandang. 

As  in  Banka,  the  natives  do  not  work  in  the  mines. 
They  cultivate  a few  fields  and  the  more  valuable  kinds 
of  palms ; they  also  weave  mats  and  make  vessels,  &c., 
of  pewter.  They  export  a little  copra,  also  baskets, 
rattan,  gums,  and  resins,  wood  for  furniture,  and  tortoise- 


The  languages  and  dialects  of  Sumatra  are  as  numerous 
as  the  races  of  its  inhabitants,  despite  the  visible  relation- 
ship of  both.  The  principal  languages  are  the  Malay 
of  Menangkabau,  Batak,  Achinese,  Lampong,  Redjang, 
Lebong,  &c.  Malay,  the  usual  language  of  the  whole  of 
the  east  coast,  excepting  the  two  extremities  of  the  coast, 
of  the  archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga,  of  Banka,  Billiton, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  west  coast,  is  also  understood 
and  spoken  by  all  the  other  peoples  of  Sumatra  ; it  serves 
as  the  language  of  trade  and  inter-tribal  communication 
in  all  parts  of  the  island. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF 
SUMATRA  AND  THE  ARCHIPELAGO  OF  RIOUW  LINGGA 

I.  The  Dutch  have  been  hampered  by  certain  European  Powers 
and  certain  of  the  races  of  Sumatra  in  their  endeavour  to 
establish  the  power  of  Holland  in  Sumatra. — II.  The  present 
administrative  divisions  of  Sumatra. — The  principal  towns  and 
their  future. — III.  Economic  value  of  Sumatra  : the  wealth  of 
its  natural  resources. — IV.  How  far  the  natives  have  exploited 
the  natural  resources. — V.  How  far  the  Europeans  have  done 
so  : the  mines. — VI.  Coffee  and  tobacco  ; spices. — VII.  The 
means  of  communication  with  Sumatra  : railways,  packet-boats. 
— The  means  of  communication  must  be  greatly  enlarged  before 
the  island  can  be  pacified  and  its  wealth  developed. 


I. 

Sumatra,1  it  seems,  has  only  been  known  to  the 
Europeans  since  the  sixteenth  century ; long  after  the 
Hindus,  and  later  on  the  Arabs,  had  brought  their  beliefs 
and  their  civilisations.  The  imprint  of  the  Hindus  remains 
especially  visible  in  the  east  and  south  of  the  island  ; and 
that  of  the  Arabs  in  the  north  and  along  the  eastern 
coast.  Ludovico  di  Varthema,2  the  first  of  the  Europeans, 
is  said  to  have  discovered  the  coast  of  Sumatra  in  1505. 
He  was  followed  by  the  Portuguese  in  1509,  and  in  1599 
by  the  Dutch,  who  landed  on  the  coast  of  Achin.  Here 
Cornelius  Houtman,  one  of  those  who  “ discovered"  for 

1 Other  names  of  Sumatra : Malayu,  Java  Minor,  Al-Ramni, 
Samara,  Sumadra,  Shamudra,  Shamuthera,  Soumatra,  Andelas,  Pulo 
Pertja,  Liman,  &c. 

2 See  Les  voyages  de  Ludovico  di  Varthema  ou  le  Viateur  de  la  plus 
grande parlie  de  l' Orient.  Published  by  Ch.jScheffer  (Paris,  1890, 8vo.). 

283 


284 


JAVA 


Holland  the  route  to  the  Indies,  was  killed  by  the 
Achinese  (1599),  who  began,  over  the  body  of  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  power  of  Holland  in  the  East,  their 
interminable  struggle  against  that  Power.  Having 
gradually  won  a footing  upon  various  points  of  the 
Sumatrese  coast,  and  having  expelled  their  predecessors, 
the  Portuguese,  the  Dutch  were  compelled  throughout 
the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  struggle  against 
the  rivalry  of  England.  Only  in  1814  did  England 
renounce  her  claim  to  Banka  in  return  for  the  cession  of 
Cochin  and  its  dependencies  on  the  Malabar  coast ; and  in 
1824,  by  the  Treaty  of  London  (confirmed  and  amplified 
in  1871)  she  abandoned  all  claims  to  Billiton  and  the 
whole  of  Sumatra,  in  return  for  all  the  remaining  Dutch 
possessions  on  the  Indian  coast  and  the  Malayan 
Peninsula,  together  with  the  island  of  Singapore. 

Her  European  rivals  being  thus  disposed  of,  Holland 
set  herself  the  arduous  task  of  rendering  her  domination 
actual  instead  of  nominal,  as  it  was  at  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  The  size  and  configuration  of 
the  island,  and  the  independent  spirit  of  its  peoples,  have 
made  the  task  a matter  of  interminable  patience  in  which 
diplomacy  has  more  than  once  been  forced  to  fall  back 
upon  the  force  of  arms. 

The  country  of  the  Lampongs,  formerly  under  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Sultans  of  Bantam  (Bantan,  Banten), 
was  in  1808  annexed  by  Daendels,  after  an  expedition 
against  Bantam  itself.  Since  then,  with  the  exception  of 
a formidable  rebellion  in  1850,  the  country  has  been 
quiet.  The  territories  of  the  Redjangs  and  the  Lebongs, 
who  were  recognised  vassals  of  Holland,  shortly  after- 
wards made  a show  of  hostility,  and  murdered  some 
European  agents,  with  the  result  that  they  were  incor- 
porated as  part  of  the  Dutch  domain  in  1858. 

The  wealthier  and  more  desirable  eastern  coast  was 
acquired  with  far  greater  difficulty.  At  the  beginning  of 
its  power  the  East  Indian  Company  sought  by  various 
means  to  gain  a modest  footing  in  order  that  it  might 
extend  its  trade  ; then,  profiting  by  the  constant  quarrels 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  285 


of  all  the  reigning  princes,  and  by  offering  its  aid  first  to 
one  and  then  to  another,  it  gradually  contrived  to  subject 
them,  or,  if  need  were,  to  suppress  them  altogether. 
Wherever  it  was  possible  without  endangering  their 
domination  to  maintain  the  ancient  institutions  of  the 
country  they  established  them  by  law.  The  shadow  of  a 
Sultan,  generously  pensioned,  but  without  any  initiation, 
has  in  more  than  one  case  proved  to  be  a diplomatic 
instrument  of  authority  over  these  obscure  and  fanatical 
races.  Thus  the  Sultans  of  Djambi  and  Deli  were 
retained  upon  their  thrones. 

The  powerful  kingdom  of  Palembang  was  one  of  the 
first  which  the  Dutch  sought  to  enter,  on  account  of  its 
enormous  production  of  pepper.  In  1617  the  East 
Indian  Company  obtained  access  to  the  Sultan  ; and  in 
1620  the  foundation  of  a modest  settlement  enabled  it 
to  drain  the  country  of  pepper  for  the  benefit  of  Batavia. 
In  1654  violent  hostilities  broke  out  against  the  Dutch, 
who  were  forced  to  leave  the  country  : they  returned  in 
force  and  captured  Palembang.  In  1659  the  Sultan  was 
forced  to  grant  them  the  monopoly  of  pepper,  and  per- 
mission to  build  a fort  upon  the  Musi.  In  1819  another 
rebellion  again  ended  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch. 
One  of  the  principal  causes  of  this  misunderstanding 
was  the  fact  that  the  two  rival  Powers  were  disputing  for 
the  possession  of  Banka  and  Billiton  and  their  rich  tin- 
mines,  of  which  the  Sultan  of  Palembang  was  the  pre- 
tended sovereign  ; but  in  reality  the  prince  of  the  islands 
in  question  had  in  1668  placed  himself  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  Company,  which  fact 
enabled  the  Dutch  Government  to  establish  itself  on  the 
two  islands.  An  expedition  led  by  De  Kock  in  1821 
against  Palembang  subdued  the  latter.  In  1825  the  city 
attempted  to  rebel,  and  was  again  taken ; in  1849  a 
Resident  was  installed  there.  In  1864  it  was  judged  ripe 
for  European  government ; and  save  for  a rebellion 
fomented  by  fanatical  Mahomedans  in  1881,  the  city  and 
the  whole  country  are  perfectly  tranquil,  and  to-day 
seem  contented  with  their  lot. 


286 


JAVA 


The  Sultanate  of  Djambi  showed  itself  even  more  anti- 
foreign  than  Palembang  ; with  the  result  that  the  Dutch, 
unwilling  to  see  their  compatriots  who  went  thither  to 
trade  assassinated,  broke  off  all  relations  with  the  Sultan. 
In  1883,  however,  a Sultan  of  Djambi  requested  the 
Dutch  to  help  him  against  the  pirates.  By  means  of 
their  assistance  he  was  victorious ; but  in  return  the 
Dutch  established  a small  garrison  in  his  capital,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  grant  the  right  of  free  trade  and  the 
monopoly  of  salt.  In  1858,  these  concessions  being 
revoked  by  a new  Sultan,  an  expedition  seized  his 
kraton,  drove  him  away,  and  replaced  him  by  one  of  his 
uncles,  who  was  of  a more  accommodating  tempera- 
ment. The  latter  recognised  the  suzerainty  of  Holland, 
which  appointed  a “ political  agent " in  permanent  resi- 
dence at  his  court.  In  1868,  1878,  and  1881  serious 
difficulties  arose,  and  ended  in  the  more  definite  mastery 
of  the  Dutch  Government,  which  compensated  the  Sultan 
for  his  decreased  authority  by  an  increased  pension. 
The  assassination  of  three  Europeans  by  two  Hadjis,  in 
1883,  several  outbreaks  of  discontented  natives,  which 
met  with  the  approbation  of  the  Sultan,  in  1886,  1888, 
and  again  in  1895,  have  reduced  the  power  of  the  Sultan 
to  a vain  appearance.  Every  three  months  he  is  obliged 
to  present  himself  before  the  political  agent,  and, 
although  his  movements  are  unrestricted,  they  are  none 
the  less  carefully  watched.  All  monopolies  are  retained 
by  Holland,  as  well  as  the  effective  exercise  of  power. 

Holland  having,  in  1824,  annexed  the  archipelago  of 
Riouw  Lingga,  in  order  to  expel  a non-Malay  Sultan  who 
was  protected  by  the  English,  the  Resident  of  Riouw,  in 
1872,  profited  by  that  fact  in  claiming,  in  the  name  of 
the  Sultans  whom  his  predecessors  had  replaced,  the 
suzerainty  of  the  kingdom  of  Siak,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Sumatra,  it  being  at  that  date  in  a weak  and  unstable 
condition. 

The  subjection  of  the  Sultanate  of  Deli,  further  to 
the  north,  was  a matter  of  more  difficulty  ; but  in  1854 
the  Sultan,  who  had  succeeded  at  one  stroke  in  emanci- 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  287 


pating  himself  from  the  princes  of  Siak  and  Achin, 
demanded  aid  from  Holland  against  renewed  preten- 
sions on  the  part  of  the  Achinese.  In  1858  he  became 
the  vassal  of  the  Dutch  Government ; in  1872  there  was 
a brief  rebellion,  and  in  1876  Deli  was  taken  over  by  the 
government  of  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  although  the 
Sultan  is  retained  upon  the  throne. 

As  for  the  west  coast,  upon  the  withdrawal  of  the 
English  the  Dutch  found  themselves  masters  of  only  a 
narrow  belt  of  territory,  with  Bencoolen  as  its  capital. 
The  wealthy  interior,  the  Highlands  of  Pandang,  re- 
mained closed  to  them,  as  did  the  mysterious  kingdom 
of  Menangkabau,  the  centre  of  the  Malay  power,  the 
Maharajah  of  which  boasted,  in  his  letters,  that  his 
authority  extended  from  China  to  Turkey. 

In  1821  this  Maharajah,  or  emperor,  who  was  also  the 
high  priest,  the  supreme  pontiff  of  his  country,  begged 
the  assistance  of  the  Government  at  Batavia  against 
certain  of  his  subjects,  the  fanatical  Mahomedans  known 
as  the  Padris,  of  whom  we  have  already  spoken,  who 
wished,  in  the  name  of  the  Koran,  to  abolish  the  adat , 
and  everything  in  the  social  and  political  organism  that 
was  not  in  conformity  with  Islam.  They  also  protested 
against  the  abuse  of  tobacco,  opium,  and  alcohol,  and 
manifested  their  reforming  zeal  with  arms  in  their  hands. 

Holland  was  forced  to  tight  against  the  Padris  for 
seventeen  years.  Once  victorious  (1838),  she  wished  to 
annex  the  territory  conquered  ; no  easy  matter,  since  the 
sovereign  of  Menangkabau  was  accustomed  to  the  vene- 
ration of  his  subjects,  but  not  to  their  obedience  ; and  a 
whole  system  of  feudatory  princes  who  nominally  owed 
him  obedience  took  independent  action  and  opposed  the 
power  of  Holland.  Only  in  1899  was  the  kingdom  of 
Menangkabau  annexed  to  the  Dutch  domain  and  effec- 
tually pacified. 

In  the  case  of  the  Batak  territory,  the  influence  of  the 
missionaries  from  1883  onwards  greatly  facilitated  the 
establishment  of  the  Dutch  power. 

It  was  the  conquest  of  the  northern  portion  of  Sumatra 


288 


JAVA 


— the  kingdom  of  Acheen — that  gave  Holland  the  greatest 
trouble.  As  early  as  1509  the  Portuguese  had  endea- 
voured to  enter  into  relations  with  the  Sultan  of  Atjeh  ; 
in  1601  the  Dutch  in  turn  had  obtained  his  permission 
to  establish  a factory ; but  in  a revulsion  of  feeling 
common  enough  in  these  savage  and  arrogant  monarchs, 
they  were  expelled  in  1616,  and  the  kingdom  remained 
hostile  throughout  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. In  1816,  under  the  English  domination,  Raffles 
avenged  the  Europeans  : he  deposed  the  Sultan  and 
enforced,  a treaty  of  commerce.  After  the  withdrawal 
of  England  the  Dutch,  in  1827,  again  attempted  to  form 
relations  with  Acheen  ; in  1857,  after  endless  trouble,  they 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a commercial  treaty.  The  aver- 
sion inspired  by  Holland  increasing  with  her  power  in 
Sumatra,  she  decided,  in  1873,  to  make  war  upon  Acheen. 
This  was  an  interminable  campaign:  a guerilla  war;  an 
affair  of  ambuscades  and  surprises,  in  a country  imper- 
fectly known,  interspersed  with  brief  and  ineffectual 
truces  or  remissions : a war  which  has  already,  it  is 
estimated,  on  one  side  or  the  other,  cost  more  than 
200,000  lives,  and  which  has  certainly  cost  Holland 
nearly  -£40,000,000.  Although  the  neighbouring  coun- 
tries of  the  Gayos  and  the  Alas  were  annexed 
in  1904,  and  all  the  important  towns  and  strate- 
gical points  of  the  kingdom  are  now  in  the  hands  of 
the  Dutch,  the  war  still  continues;  desperate,  full  of 
treacherous  ambuscades ; a campaign  in  which  Euro- 
peans will  not  willingly  serve.  The  armed  forces  which 
are  always  in  the  field  have  largely  contributed  to  the 
slight  deficit  in  the  budget  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  As 
a result  of  its  obstinate  resistance  Acheen  has  lost  its 
native  government,  and  is  now  under  the  authority  of  a 
military  commandant,  and  will  so  continue  until  com- 
pletely pacified. 

II. 

In  the  still  precarious  conditions  of  the  Dutch  empire 
in  Sumatra,  Holland  has  divided  the  great  island  into  six 


MALAY  DWELLING-HOUSE,  KOTA  GEDANG,  SUMATRA. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  289 


Governments  or  Residencies.  The  boundaries  of  these 
divisions  by  no  means  always  coincide  with  the  old 
native  boundaries,  their  character  being  purely  strate- 
gical or  economical,  and  intended  to  remould  the  native 
life  upon  a new  basis,  so  that  it  may  be  in  close  touch 
with  the  Dutch  domination. 

The  Residents  of  Sumatra,  several  of  whom  bear  the 
style  of  Governor,  are  noted  among  all  the  Dutch  colo- 
nial officials  as  picked  men  of  unusual  ability.  They 
have  more  authority  than  other  Residents  ; they  have 
greater  difficulties  to  cope  with,  and  their  duties  are 
often  doubled  by  the  fact  that  they  must  act  as  skilful 
diplomatists  upon  occasion ; their  situation  compels 
them  to  a greater  initiative,  demands  greater  tact  and 
authority  than  are  required  of  the  majority  of  Javanese1 
Residents,  who  are  a trifle  spoiled  by  their  comfortable 
and  conventional  semi-royalty. 

Sumatra  contains  six  principal  Governments  or  Resi- 
dencies : — 

1.  The  Government  of  the  West  Coast  of  Sumatra 
( Gouvernement  Sumatra’s  Westkust),  which  itself  consists 
of  the  three  following  Residencies  : — 

(а)  The  Highlands  of  Padang  ( Padangsche  Boven- 
landeri),  the  capital  being  Fort  de  Kock,  placed 
under  the  direct  authority  of  the  Governor  ; 

(б)  The  Lowlands  of  Padang  ( Padangsche  Beneden- 

landen),  capital  Padang ; 

(c)  The  Residency  of  Tapanuli,  capital  Padang 
Sidempuan. 

2.  The  Residency  of  Benkulan,  capital  Benkulan. 

3.  The  Residency  of  the  Lampong  districts  ( Lam - 
pongsche  Districten),  capital  Telong-Betong. 

4.  The  Residency  of  Palembang,  capital  Palembang. 

5.  The  Residency  of  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  (< Dost - 
kust  van  Sumatra),  capital  Medan. 

6.  The  Government  of  Acheen  (.4  fy'tf/r),  capital  Kota  Radja. 

' As  a rule  the  Dutch  Government  tests  the  value  of  its  future 
Residents  by  appointing  them  to  difficult  posts  in  Sumatra,  Celebes, 
or  Bali,  before  calling  them  to  the  relative  repose  of  Java. 

20 


290 


JAVA 


One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  various  capital  and 
other  towns  of  these  Residencies  is  the  sparsity  of  the 
population,  especially  as  compared  with  the  over-popu- 
lation of  Java. 

The  Residency  of  the  Highlands  of  Padang  covers  a 
magnificent  country,  which  is  overlooked  by  the  high 
peaks  of  Merapi  and  Singgalang,  and  whose  agricultural 
wealth  is  surpassed  only  by  the  wealth  of  coal  beneath 
the  surface.  The  capital,  Fort  de  Kock  (in  Malay  Bukit 
Tinggi),  stands  at  a height  of  nearly  3,000  feet.  The 
surroundings  are  most  beautiful,  and  the  climate  is 
equable  and  refreshing ; an  advantage  which  attracts 
many  sufferers  from  beri-beri  or  liver  complaints.  The 
population  numbers  only  2,290,  of  whom  258  are  Euro- 
peans and  345  Chinese.  The  position  of  Fort  de  Kock  is 
especially  good  from  the  strategical  point  of  view,  but 
the  destiny  of  the  town  is  to  become  a centre  of  a new 
civilisation.  The  establishment  of  a Normal  College  for 
native  teachers,  and  of  a rack  railway  which  connects  the 
town  with  Padang  and  Padang  Pandjang,  already  witness 
to  the  double  capacity  which  the  Dutch  have  assigned  to 
the  little  capital.  Padang  Pandjang  (1,907  inhabitants, 
including  207  Europeans  and  340  Chinese),  a district 
capital,  is  the  most  rainy  spot  in  the  whole  Archipelago. 
Pajakumbu,  or  Pajakombo,  which  has  even  fewer  inhabi- 
tants, is  superbly  situated  amid  luxuriant  plantations  of 
coffee  ; Solok  (1,443  inhabitants),  Fort  van  der  Capellen 
(723  inhabitants),  and  Lubu  Sikaping,  are  more  important 
from  a military  than  a political  or  economic  point  of 
view. 

The  capital  of  the  Lowlands  of  Padang — Padang,  with 
91,440  inhabitants,  of  whom  1,789  are  Europeans,  5,136 
Chinese,  and  210  Arabs — is,  we  must  admit,  a city  of 
respectable  size. 

Built  on  the  Padang  River,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Ajer  Padang  Aran  and  the  Ajer  Padang  Idal,  and  scattered 
among  groves  of  coco-palms  and  mango-trees,  with  the 
smoking  cone  of  Talang  shouldering  the  horizon ; a 
patchwork  of  houses,  orchards,  trees,  and  avenues,  gay 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  L1NGGA  291 


with  flower-beds  in  the  European  quarter,  the  city  has 
a rustic  seductive  charm  ; but  for  all  that  it  plies  a very 
important  trade  in  all  the  products  of  the  interior  : coffee, 
tobacco,  copra,  gum  dammar,  and  rubber : and  an 
equally  important  export  trade,  which  passes  through  its 
port,  Emmahaven.  Priaman,  Ajer  Bangis,  and  Painan, 
district  capitals  containing  from  1,770  to  2,890  inhabitants, 
are  also  engaged  in  trade,  which  is  facilitated,  in  the  case 
of  the  two  first-named,  by  the  possession  of  a safe  and 
well-protected  harbour. 

The  Residency  of  Tapanuli  has  for  capital  Padang 
Sjidimpuan  (17,610  inhabitants,  84  being  Europeans  and 
565  Chinese),  a small  but  active  commercial  centre. 
Siboga,  which  has  been  supplanted  by  Padang  Sidimpuan, 
its  excellent  port  being  insanitary,  has  only  3,128  in- 
habitants ; Gunung  Tuwa,  Sipirok,  Penjabungan,  Kota 
Nopan,  Tarutung  are  district  capitals,  perhaps  with  a 
future  before  them,  but  none  of  them  at  present  has  a 
population  exceeding  a thousand.  Natal,  thanks  to  its 
port  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  carries  on  a trade 
with  Singapore,  and  exports  salt  from  the  Government 
depot ; its  population  numbers  2,879.  Kota  Baru  was  a 
great  city  under  the  Hindus,  formerly  the  second  trading 
centre  on  the  coast,  ranking  next  to  Padang  as  a market 
for  benzoin  and  camphor  throughout  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  its  trade  was  killed  by  the  Achinese  occupa- 
tion in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  to-day  it  is  only  a 
poverty-stricken  village.  Singhel,  although  once  a royal 
city,  was  also  brought  to  decay  by  the  Achinese 
domination. 

The  Residency  of  Benkulen  ( Bencoolen ) has  its  capital 
at  Benkulen  (7,721  inhabitants),  whose  past  was  richer 
than  its  present.  The  English  and  the  Dutch  in  turn 
wished  to  make  it  a great  commercial  centre,  and  the 
capital  of  all  their  possessions  on  the  Indian  Ocean.  But 
the  roadstead,  though  safe,  was  silting  up  ; the  climate 
was  unhealthy  and  the  town  stricken  with  fever  ; factors 
which  defeated  the  plans  of  Raffles  and  the  Dutch  East 
Indian  Company.  To-day  Benkulen  is  in  decay.  The 


292 


JAVA 


district  capitals,  Mokko  Mokko,  a small  port  frequented 
by  vessels  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  Pasar  Ta'is, 
Manna,  Bintuhan  on  the  Bay  of  Sambat,  and  Kepahiang, 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Musi,  have  none  of  them  over 
1,200  inhabitants.  Only  Kroe,  with  its  well-sheltered 
bay  where  the  steamers  of  the  Koninklijke  Paketwaart 
Maatschappij  call,  has  a population  of  1,347. 

The  Residency  of  the  Lampongs  is  almost  as  sparsely 
populated.  The  activity  of  all  its  ports  on  the  Straits  of 
Sunda  is  limited  to  an  insignificant  coasting  trade.  The 
capital,  Telok  Betong,  which  is  built  on  a fairly  deep 
inlet  or  bay,  boasts  only  of  3,759  inhabitants,  of  whom 
62  are  Europeans,  850  Chinese,  and  93  Arabs.  The  trade 
is  principally  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  and  the  Arabs. 

Tandjung  Karang,  Gunung  Sugi,  Sukadana,  Kalianda, 
and  even  Kota  Agung,  on  Emperor  Bay  ( Keizersbaai ), 
which  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  Semangka,  are  only 
insignificant  collections  of  native  kampongs, although  they 
are  district  capitals.  Menggala  alone,  on  the  Waikanan, 
but  some  distance  inland,  is  more  prosperous,  boasting  of 
nearly  nine  thousand  inhabitants. 

The  Residencies  of  the  East  Coast  present  a very 
different  picture,  being  full  of  movement  and  vitality. 

The  capital  of  the  Residency,  and  formerly  of  the 
celebrated  Sultanate  of  Palembang,  is  the  city  of  the  same 
name,  containing  60,985  inhabitants.  Among  these  are 
572  Europeans,  7,304  Chinese,  and  2,420  Arabs  ; a pro- 
portion that  testifies  to  a vigorous  export  and  import 
trade.  The  city  is  exquisitely  picturesque,  rising  gradually 
from  the  two  banks  of  the  River  Musi,  at  a distance  of 
some  55  miles  from  the  sea.  So  long  is  its  river  frontage 
that  it  takes  from  two  to  three  hours  to  row  from  end  to 
end.  Palembang  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  heavy  tonnage. 
Its  houses  are  raised  on  piles ; those  of  the  rich  Arabs, 
and  of  the  Chinese  especially,  are  built  of  the  precious 
tembesu 1 wood,  decorated  with  carving  and  gilding,  or 

1 Tembesoe,  tembesu,  temusu.  Fagrcca  fragrans  Roxb.  (Logoniacce). 
An  excellent  wood  for  building  and  cabinet-making,  &c.  (density  •8), 
which  the  Dutch  call  “Palembang  ironwood”  ( Palembangsche 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  293 


brightly  painted,  and,  surrounded  by  small  gardens,  are 
to  be  seen  in  their  special  quarters.  The  centre  of  the 
great  river,  which  is  more  than  a thousand  feet  wide,  is 
occupied  by  other  houses — Arab,  Chinese,  Hindu,  Malay 
— perched  high  above  the  water  on  account  of  the  terrible 
freshets,  and  resting  on  large  rafts,  which  keep  their 
stations  so  long  as  they  have  anything  left  to  sell,  and 
then  work  up  into  the  interior  of  the  country  to  lay  in 
their  stock  of  merchandise,  towing  their  floating  houses 
where  they  will,  halting  where  they  will. 

The  European  quarter  is  set  apart  from  the  native 
kampongs.  A graceful  mosque  of  stone,  marble,  and 
teak,  with  three  superimposed  conical  roofs,  and  a fine 
octagonal  minaret,  overlooks  this  East  Indian  Venice — 
gay,  dirty,  swarming  with  life,  and  luminous  with  sunlight. 

Tandjung  Radja,  Mura  Dua,  and  Talang  Betutu  are 
of  no  great  importance;  Sekaju  is  more  active;  Lahat, 
in  the  midst  of  dense  forests  which  are  still  over-full  of 
tigers,  is  a good  military  position  ; Tebing  Tinggi  (1,328 
inhabitants),  on  the  Musi  River  and  the  highway  from 
Palembang  to  Benkulen,  has  a still  greater  strategical 
value,  on  account  of  its  moral  effect  upon  the  seditious 
populations  in  the  neighbouring  districts.  Tebing  Tinggi 
seems  to  be  destined  to  acquire  an  importance  of  a very 
different  order,  as  for  some  years  past  large  mining 
concessions  have  been  granted  in  the  district. 

Djambi  (8,993  inhabitants,  of  whom  38  are  Europeans, 
530  Chinese,  and  533  Arabs),  which  is  built  upon  both 
banks  of  the  Djambi  River,  was  formerly  almost  as 
picturesque  and  flamboyant  as  Palembang ; to-day  the 
European  quarter  consists  of  ten  or  twelve  houses  on  the 
right  bank,  opposite  the  kraton  of  the  Sultan,  which  by 
their  very  presence  annul  the  despotism  of  the  latter. 
Djambi  used  to  be  as  intolerant  as  Palembang  in  the 
matter  of  allowing  the  Chinese,  Hindus,  and  even  the 
Arabs  to  build  their  houses  in  the  town,  and  possesses, 

Ijzerhout).  It  is  of  a light  yellow  or  brown  colour,  beautifully 
veined,  hard,  solid,  close  in  grain,  and  capable  of  taking  an 
excellent  polish. 


294 


JAVA 


like  the  latter  city,  a floating  town  of  houseboats  in  its 
port,  Muara  Kompei.  Despite  its  trade  with  Singapore, 
it  is  declining ; only  a vigorous  reorganisation  could 
give  it  new  life. 

Rengat,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Indragiri, 
is  a dead  city. 

The  Government  of  the  East  Coast  of  Sumatra  has  its 
seat  at  Medan  (14,250  inhabitants,  including  905  Euro- 
peans, 6,397  Chinese,  43  Arabs,  and  3,665  Asiatic 
foreigners  : Bengalis,  Tamils,  &c.),  a town  created  by 
the  Dutch.  On  the  site  of  an  old  native  fortress  on 
the  Deli  River,  in  the  district  of  the  same  name,  they 
have  built  up  the  largest  centre  of  the  Sumatran  tobacco 
trade,  the  whole  of  the  neighbouring  plain  being  devoted 
to  tobacco  plantations  ; but  a strong  garrison  reminds  us 
that  agriculture  has  its  troubles  in  a seditious  or  rebellious 
country.  The  European  quarter  is  clean,  well  laid  out, 
airy,  and  planted  with  many  beautiful  shade-trees.  Hidden 
amidst  the  verdure  are  the  immense  buildings  of  the 
concessionary  Tobacco  Company  of  Deli,  including  their 
warehouses  and  offices  and  a large  well-appointed  asylum 
for  the  native  immigrants  ( Immigranten-Asyl)  who  come 
to  work  upon  the  tobacco  plantations  : also  a huge  hos- 
pital for  the  European  employees  and  native  labourers 
of  the  company.  The  native  population  lives  on  land 
belonging  to  the  Sultan,  in  poor  kampongs  of  wooden 
huts  and  houses,  huddled  closely  together  ; but  the 
magnificent  new  kraton  of  the  Sultan  is  outside  Medan. 
Medan  has  an  excellent  outer  port — Belawan — the  ter- 
minus of  the  Deli-Medan  Railway,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Deli — which  carries  on  a steady  trade  with 
Singapore  and  Penang.  Tandjung  Pura  (3,612  inhabi- 
tants, including  938  Chinese),  the  capital  of  the  Sultanate 
of  Langkat,  plies  an  active  trade  in  pepper,  petroleum, 
rattan,  wax,  gambier,  and  tobacco  ; principally  with  the 
interior,  but  it  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese. 

Lubuk  Pakam,  the  departmental  capital  of  Serdang,  is 
also  half  Chinese,  by  reason  of  the  wealth  of  the  able 
Celestial  traders.  Tandjung  Balai  (3,790  inhabitants,  of 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  295 


whom  59  are  Europeans  and  1,791  Chinese),  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Asahan,  and  Tebing  Tinggi,  in 
the  district  of  Padang  and  Bedagei  (7,014  inhabitants) 
are  every  day  gaining  importance  on  account  of  their 
increasing  commercial  activity,  while  Bengkalis  (7,920 
inhabitants,  of  whom  1,462  are  Chinese),  the  former 
capital  of  the  Residency,  a port  advantageously  situated 
on  an  island,  within  touch  of  many  tobacco  plantations, 
is  declining.  The  Dutch  at  one  time  dreamed  of  making 
it  another  Singapore.  Its  unhealthiness  resulted  in  its 
gradual  decay ; a decay  less  miserable,  however,  than 
that  of  Siak,  which  was  formerly  the  seat  of  a sovereign. 
We  must  also  note  Saribu  Dolok,  the  district  capital  of 
Simelungen  and  of  the  Karo  country  ( Karolanden ),  but 
a town  of  no  great  importance. 

The  military  government  of  Acheen  contains  more 
villages  than  towns,  concerning  which  it  is  as  yet  by  no 
means  easy  to  obtain  exact  information. 

The  capital  of  the  Government  of  Kota  Radja,  contain- 
ing 3,704  inhabitants  (including  290  Europeans  and  1,025 
Chinese)  is  said,  doubtless  with  exaggeration,  to  have 
contained  25,000  in  the  old  days.  To-day  it  is  merely 
a vast  barracks,  with  the  addition  of  kampongs — 
Chinese,  Javanese,  &c. — on  a specially  reserved  site. 
The  kraton  of  the  former  Sultan,  a huge  fortified 
rectangle,  half  a mile  wide  and  nearly  a mile  in  length, 
surrounded  by  a deep  moat,  and  traversed  by  the  Krung 
Daru,  is  occupied  by  the  Governor,  the  military  head- 
quarters, and  a small  garrison  ; the  rest  of  the  troops 
being  stationed  to  the  south  of  the  kraton,  in  the 
magnificent  camp  at  Nesu.  We  must  not  forget  the 
great  mosque  with  metallic  cupolas — the  Masdjid  Radja 
— which  was  built  by  the  Dutch  Government  in  1881  to 
replace  that  destroyed  during  a desperate  battle  which 
was  fought  before  the  town.  A steam  tramway,  which 
crosses  a remarkable  iron  trestle-way,  connects  Kota 
Radja  with  its  port,  Oleh  Leh,  the  journey  taking  an 
hour  and  a half.  The  tramway  runs  along  a narrow 
isthmus  of  sand,  on  both  sides  of  which  are  innumerable 


296 


JAVA 


small  lagoons.  Oleh  Leh,  or  Uleieh  Leueh,  which  was 
deserted  by  European  shipping  twenty  years  ago,  has 
once  more  begun  to  be  of  some  importance  since  the 
Dutch  occupation,  though  in  a less  degree  than  Sabang 
(1,000  inhabitants)  on  the  island  of  Pulu  Weh.  Not  only 
is  the  surrounding  country  rich  in  pepper,  but  Sabang  is 
the  shortest  route,  and  the  necessary  port  of  embarkation, 
for  the  traveller  by  sea  to  Europe,  North  America,  Singa- 
pore, and  the  entire  Far  East.  The  Bay  of  Sabang, 
entrance  to  which  is  nearly  half  a mile  wide,  contains  an 
anchorage  nearly  a mile  in  length  and  over  half  a mile 
in  width,  while  the  depth  runs  from  13  to  18  fathoms. 
It  has  been  much  improved  since  the  flag  of  the  Nether- 
lands was  planted  there  in  1877,  and  is  accessible  to 
warships  as  well  as  merchant  vessels.  Both,  in  fact,  are 
using  the  harbour  with  increasing  frequency,  and  there 
seems  to  be  a great  future  in  store  for  Sabang. 

The  Residency  of  the  archipelago  of  Riouw  Lingga 
contains  no  large  towns.  The  capital,  Tandjung  Priok, 
has  a population  of  4,088. 

Muntok,  the  capital  of  the  Residency  of  Banka,  is 
supposed  to  contain  25,000  inhabitants  ; as  a matter  of 
fact  this  figure  is  disputed. 

The  capital  of  the  Assistant-Residency  of  Billiton, 
Tandjung  Pandan,  has  only  4,900  inhabitants ; 18  of 
these  are  Europeans,  and  1,015  Chinese. 

III. 

We  see  that  the  population  of  Sumatra  is  by  no  means 
in  proportion  to  its  large  area,  and  this  from  various 
causes.  War  between  the  various  peoples  has  been  too 
frequent  to  allow  of  great  increase  ; while  among  several 
of  the  less  civilised,  such  as  the  Bataks,  the  birth-rate 
has  been  restricted.  Then  rational  hygiene  is  to  all 
intents  absolutely  unknown ; while  other  factors  are 
poverty,  insecurity  of  life,  and  the  exhaustion  of  women 
by  premature  marriage  or  by  too  heavy  labour.  All  these 
causes,  it  seems,  might  disappear  or  diminish  were 


KANARI  KAMPONG,  SOLOK,  SUMATRA. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  297 


peace  and  comparative  wealth  established  throughout 
the  island  ; and  the  first  thing  to  be  done  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Sumatrese  should  be  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  their  country  ; on  condition  that  its  full  value 
should  be  realised  without  the  severity  and  the  sacrifice 
of  human  life  which  attended  the  development  of  Java 
by  the  system  of  Van  den  Bosch ; a condition  guaranteed 
by  the  humanitarian  sentiment  of  modern  Holland,  and 
the  obstinate  and  hostile  humour  of  the  Sumatrese. 

A glance  at  the  natural  wealth  of  Sumatra,  by  which 
the  natives  benefit  so  little,  and  the  remarkable  results 
obtained  everywhere  when  European  methods  and 
enterprise  have  been  at  work,  are  enough  to  show  what 
the  future  of  Sumatra  should  be. 

This  vast  island,  it  seems,  is  even  more  richly  endowed 
by  nature  than  is  Java.  Its  subsoil,  to  judge  by  a neces- 
sarily limited  examination,  is  full  of  treasure  : gold  and 
silver  are  found  in  remarkable  quantities  in  the  High- 
lands of  Padang  and  in  the  Residencies  of  Tapanuli 
and  Palembang.  Tin,  which  forms  the  principal  wealth 
of  Banka,  Billiton,  and  Riouw,  is  also  found  in  Siak ; 
lead  is  found  in  the  Nine  Kotas  and  the  Thirteen  Kotas, 
to  the  south  of  the  Residency  of  the  Highlands  of 
Padang  ; copper  exists  everywhere  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Lake  of  Singkarah ; sulphur,  naphtha,  alum,  and 
saltpetre  are  plentiful  in  the  neighbourhood  of  all  the 
volcanoes.  Magnetite  exists  in  the  district  of  Tanah 
Datur ; lignite  in  the  Highlands  of  Padang,  at  Siboga 
on  the  Indrapura  River,  and  at  Benkulen  ; and  marble 
on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Indragiri.  Finally — which 
opens  a wonderful  future  for  Sumatra  as  a mining 
country — not  only  is  the  subsoil  rich  in  auriferous  and 
other  ores,  but  there  are  magnificent  coal-measures  in 
the  Highlands  of  Padang  at  Ombilin  ( Umbilen , Umbilien, 
Dutch  Oembilen),  and  at  Behangen  in  Palembang,  and 
petroleum  in  Palembang,  Siak,  Deli,  and  Achin. 

The  island  is  no  less  richly  endowed  with  vegetable 
wealth.  On  the  more  thickly  wooded  western  coast 
and  throughout  all  the  centre  of  Sumatra  there  are 


298 


JAVA 


abundant  forests  ; full  of  teak,  santal,  and  ebony,  to  say 
nothing  of  less  valuable  varieties  of  timber  ; and  what 
is  perhaps  still  better,  all  the  gum-producing  trees — the 
camphor-tree,  the  benzoin-tree,  and  countless  others. 
Palms  are  found  as  in  Java,  in  all  their  varieties,  from 
the  coco-nut  and  the  areng  to  the  sago-palm  ; the  latter 
is  in  particular  found  throughout  the  whole  archipelago 
of  Riouw  Lingga.  All  the  eastern  coast  of  Acheen  is 
planted  with  areca-palms,  and  supplies  part  of  Sumatra 
and  even  part  of  Java  with  areca-nut  for  the  preparation 
of  sirih. 

Food  crops  and  others  grow  at  their  best  in  Sumatra. 
Rice  is  found  almost  everywhere;  coffee  grows  admirably 
on  the  whole  of  the  east  coast ; less  so  in  the  Lampong 
country,  and  passably  in  Palembang.  Tobacco  succeeds 
admirably  on  the  west  coast ; pepper  and  the  nutmeg 
are  grown  to  a certain  extent  everywhere  ; but  intensively 
in  Acheen,  which  before  the  chronic  warfare  with  Holland 
commenced  furnished  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  world’s 
consumption  of  pepper,  nearly  18,000  tons  having  been 
exported  annually,  especially  from  the  ports  on  the  west 
coast.  Sugar-cane  grows  best  in  the  Riouw  archipelago, 
which  is  less  humid  than  Sumatra. 

The  Sumatrese  native  has  not  many  resources  in  the 
department  of  the  chase.  The  great  wild  bull  is  rare  ; 
the  boar  is  despised  ; the  tapir  is  almost  uneatable. 
With  the  exception  of  a few  of  the  larger  beasts,  and 
innumerable  herds  of  deer,  whose  flesh  is  widely  eaten 
in  the  dried  state,  and  whose  tendons  and  hooves,  and 
antlers,  if  still  young  and  with  the  velvet  on,  are  greatly 
sought  after  by  the  Chinese  in  Java,  there  is  little  edible 
game.  Roedeer  also  abound,  and  birds  of  endless  variety. 

The  fisheries  should  be  more  fruitful,  for  fish  of 
almost  every  species  swarm  upon  the  coasts  of  Sumatra  ; 
being  even  more  plentiful  than  off  the  Javanese  coast. 
Sea  fish  or  river  fish — mackerel,  tunny,  rays,  sharks — 
caught  for  the  sake  of  their  fins,  which  are  sold  to  the 
Chinese — carps,  barbel,  eels,  and  in  particular  the 
delicious  Indian  shad  or  trubuk,  of  which  the  flesh, 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  299 


whether  fresh  or  dried,  and  especially  the  prepared  roe, 
is  greatly  appreciated  throughout  the  Archipelago. 
There  are  extensive  shad  fisheries  on  both  coasts  of 
Sumatra,  particularly  on  the  eastern  coast.  The  bulk 
of  the  product,  so  highly  esteemed  in  Java,  is  exported 
from  Palembang  and  Djambi. 

In  the  seas  around  the  Riouw  Lingga  archipelago  are 
found  agar-agar ,J  trepang,  and  also  the  ekor  bahar,  a 
brilliantly  black  coral,  shaped  like  a horn.  The  cliffs 
and  caves,  both  in  Acheen  and  Riouw,  yield  the  precious 
nest  of  the  sea-swallow. 


IV. 

What  profit  do  the  Sumatrese  derive  from  all  these 
natural  resources  ? Simply  their  living  ; rarely  a little 
comfort.  They  plant  rice  for  their  own  needs,  but 
always  in  an  insufficient  quantity,  thanks  to  sheer  lack 
of  foresight  and  indifference  to  the  morrow.  In  one 
detail  their  methods  of  cultivation  are  superior  to  those 
of  the  Javanese  : namely,  they  reap  the  rice  with  a 
sickle  in  place  of  cutting  it  one  stem  at  a time  with  a 
little  knife.  They  eat  a portion  of  the  produce  of  their 
hunting  and  their  fisheries,  and  sell  the  rest  at  absurd 
prices  to  the  Chinese,  who  alone  profit  by  their  efforts. 
With  the  exception  of  gambier 1  2 and  pepper,  and  spices, 

1 Agar-agar,  the  Malay  name  of  an  edible  seaweed,  Spherococcus 
lichenoides.  Boiled  in  water,  it  forms  a jelly  which  is  greatly 
appreciated  in  the  Far  East.  It  is  used  in  the  composition  of 
swallows’-nest  soup,  and  is  also  employed  to  make  silk  or  paper 
transparent,  being  applied  in  the  form  of  a clear  paste. 

This  forms  a favourite  and  a ceremonial  dish  among  the  South 
Sea  Islands.  In  Scotland  the  seaweed  named  “dulse”  is  eaten 
both  raw  and  cooked ; and  in  Wessex  the  green  laver  is  boiled, 
forming  an  imperfect  jelly,  and  used  as  a condiment  with  meat, 
fish,  &c. — [Trans.] 

2 Gambir  or  gambier,  an  extract  obtained  by  evaporating  in  the 
open  air  decoctions  of  the  leaves  of  the  Unicaria  gambir  Roxb.,  or 
the  Nauclea  gambir  Hunt.  The  dried  deposit  is  exported  in  the 
form  of  cubical  cakes  about  one  inch  in  diameter.  Gambier  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  quids  of  betel.  The  Riouw  archipelago 


300 


JAVA 


of  which  long  contact  with  Europeans  and  the  example 
of  the  latter  has  taught  them  the  value — especially  the 
Achinese — the  natives  of  Sumatra  export  practically 
nothing  except  a certain  amount  of  building  timber, 
copra,  rubber,  gum  dammar,  and  hides,  principally  to 
Singapore  or  Batavia  ; very  seldom  as  far  as  Amsterdam. 
The  principal  trade  of  the  island  is  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  from  one  port  to  the  next,  sometimes  by  the 
primitive  method  of  exchange.  As  the  commerce  of 
the  island  is  principally  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese, 
though  there  are  a few  rare  Europeans  who  are  by  no 
means  their  inferiors  in  rapacity  and  duplicity,  the 
profit  which  the  irresponsible  native  derives  from  it  is 
practically  non-existent. 

The  industries  of  Sumatra  are  strictly  local  and 
regrettably  primitive.  The  island  produces  nothing 
that  is  really  worth  mentioning  beyond  some  basket- 
work,  filigree-work,  a little  notably  good  work  in  copper, 
and  a few  textile  products  woven  in  the  Highlands  of 
Padang,  in  Palembang  and  in  Djambi.  The  pottery, 
rattan  furniture,  clothing,  jewels,  and  arms  manufac- 
tured in  the  island  only  testify  to  an  ability  and  a 
civilisation  of  the  second  class. 

V. 

The  Europeans  are  now  demonstrating  to  the  natives 
that  they  might  extract  both  gold  and  a higher  standard 
of  living  from  their  native  soil ; but  hitherto  the  natives 
have  hardly  derived  any  other  benefit  from  the  process 
than  the  example  itself. 

The  mines  of  Sumatra  have  for  twenty  years  been 
exploited  in  a manner  both  rational  and  profitable. 

The  tin-mines  of  Banka,  Billiton,  Singkep,  and  the 
archipelago  of  Riouw,  which  were  discovered  in  the 

produces  an  enormous  quantity,  of  which  more  than  7,000  tons 
comes  from  the  small  island  of  Bintang.  The  trade  in  gambier  is 
as  yet  monopolised  by  the  Chinese,  who  export  it  to  all  parts  of 
the  Archipelago. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  301 


eighteenth  century,  probably  between  1709  and  1711, 
and  were  leased  by  the  Chinese  from  the  Sultan  of 
Palembang,  were  worked  by  the  Chinese  without  much 
method,  but  greatly  to  their  profit,  until  1740,  when 
the  Dutch  seized  upon  them  and  made  them  a State 
monopoly.  The  Chinese,  who  came,  in  proportions 
roughly  equal,  from  Amoy  and  Canton — the  latter  being 
much  inferior  both  in  mind  and  morals — from  being  the 
tenants  of  the  mines,  became  miners,  overseers,  or  coolies. 

In  1907-1908  the  total  production  of  Banka  tin  was 
11,515  tons,  while  about  18,000  miners  or  coolies  were 
employed.  Billiton,  with  73  mines  and  11,128  workers, 
produced  4000  tons  ; excluding  a small  amount  pro- 
duced by  the  natives.  At  Singkep,  in  the  island  of 
Riouw,  1,009  workers  produced  307  tons.  From  this 
tin  alone  the  Dutch  Government  received  a revenue 
of  nearly  £ 2,000,000 . 

This  handsome  addition  to  the  East  Indian  budget 
is  destined  to  preserve  its  equilibrium,  and  is  certainly 
well  employed,  but  it  is  none  the  less  greatly  regrettable 
that  all  this  wealth  contributes  so  little  to  the  welfare 
and  improvement  of  the  natives.  The  natives  live 
altogether  apart  from  the  mines,  and  are  extremely 
poor  ; the  coolies  that  work  in  the  mines  are  drawn 
from  the  dregs  of  the  Chinese  population,  and  are  very 
badly  paid.  The  coolie's  agent  or  labour  contractor 
receives  all  the  expenses  of  importing  him,  including 
passage  money,  cost  of  engagement,  commission,  and 
medical  examination,  and  the  value  of  his  wages  at  the 
rate  of  1 florin  20  (two  shillings)  per  diem ; but  the 
coolie  himself  receives  only  a fraction  less  than  4d.  per 
diem  for  food,  and  wages  at  the  rate  of  12s.  6d.  per 
month.  He  must  engage  himself  for  at  least  a year  : 
tempted  by  opium,  driven  by  the  physical  distress  that 
follows  its  discontinuance,  and  obliged  to  obtain  all 
that  he  needs  upon  credit ; clothed  and  fed  at  usurious 
prices  by  the  stores  run  or  leased  by  the  labour  agent 
himself ; burdened  with  debts  and  with  vices,  he  can 
no  longer  hope  to  escape  from  the  mine,  and  only  too 


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JAVA 


often  dies  in  abject  poverty  in  sight  of  the  natural 
treasure-house  that  has  taken  his  life.  Although  during 
the  last  fifteen  years  the  State  has  endeavoured  to 
diminish  the  more  revolting  features  of  this  trade  in 
human  cattle,  there  is  still  much  to  be  done  both  in 
Banka  and  in  the  other  mining  districts. 

The  production  of  petroleum,  which  is  in  the  hands 
of  powerful  private  companies,1  is  also  yielding  an 
enormous  revenue. 

In  1907  the  petroleum  concessions  in  Palembang  yielded 
72,010,000  gallons  ; those  on  the  east  coast  30,605,000 
gallons,  and  those  in  Achin  54,430,000  gallons.  Sumatra, 
together  with  Java  and  Borneo,  places  the  Dutch  West 
Indies  among  the  great  petroleum  centres  of  the  world. 

As  for  coal,  in  1907,  Behangan  (Palembang)  yielded 
only  354  tons  ; but  the  rich  measures  of  Ombilin  yielded 
300,990  tons,  and  their  yield  has  increased  year  by  year 
for  many  years  past.  The  construction  of  a railway 
in  the  Padang  Highlands  makes  it  possible  to  send  the 
coal  from  the  pits  of  Ombilin  to  the  port  of  Emmahaven, 
whose  fortune  is  being  made  by  this  trade  in  coal. 

The  mines  of  Redjang  Lebong  and  Lebong  Sulit,  not 
far  from  Benkulen,  are  yielding  both  silver  and  gold. 
The  first  named  yielded  in  1903  (which  was,  it  is  true,  a 
good  year)  5-458  tons,  or  more  than  12,000  pounds  of 
silver ; the  second  501  pounds. 


1 The  three  principal  companies  in  1900  were:  (1)  The  Royal 
Dutch  Petroleum  Company,  founded  at  The  Hague  in  1890,  owning 
wells  in  Langkat  and  Tamiang,  on  the  east  coast,  and  also  two 
great  refineries,  has  reservoirs  at  Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Calcutta, 
Bangkok,  Swatow,  Madras,  Bombay,  Kurachi,  Amoy,  and  Fuchu  ; 
(2)  The  Mura-Emim  Petroleum  Company,  founded  at  Amsterdam 
in  1897  ; (3)  the  Sumatra-Palembang  Petroleum  Company,  founded 
at  The  Hague  in  1897.  The  two  latter  companies  operate  in  the 
Residency  of  Palembang.  Starting  with  less  capital  than  the  first, 
they  have  had  the  good  fortune  to  discover  deeper  wells  than  those 
of  their  richer  rival,  which  yield  a greater  flow  of  oil ; but  in  1904 
the  Royal  Dutch  bought  up  all  the  concessions  of  the  Mura-Emim 
Company.  The  petroleum  is  exported  via  Singapore  to  China, 
India,  and  Japan,  and  is  replacing  American  oil. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  303 


In  1907  the  production  of  gold  in  Sumatra  was  still 
greater  than  that  of  silver,  amounting  to  3,234  pounds’ 
weight,  and  .£182,280  in  value. 

VI. 

Agriculture,  in  skilled  hands,  should  prove  to  be 
the  real  gold-mine  of  Sumatra.  In  1833  the  Dutch 
Government  attempted  to  introduce  the  compulsory 
cultivation  of  coffee,  the  only  crop  which  the  climate 
seemed  at  that  time  likely  to  suit — in  that  part  of  the 
island  wherein  it  exercised  a genuine  authority  : namely, 
on  the  east  coast,  in  the  Residencies  of  Benkulan,  Padang, 
and  Tapanuli.  Forced  to  abandon  the  system  in  the 
flourishing  and  peaceful  island  of  Java,  the  Government 
could  not  expect  to  extend  it  to  Sumatra,  where  the  crops, 
moreover,  were  neither  as  plentiful  nor  as  high  in  quality 
as  those  of  Java.  It  is  accordingly  vanishing  year  by 
year  before  the  free  plantations  of  the  natives  and  the 
estates  of  the  European  planters,  and  the  Government  is 
letting  its  land  to  the  latter  upon  long  leases  as  in  Java. 

In  1907,  however,  the  Government  crop  in  the  Padang 
Highlands  still  amounted  to  24,117  piculs  (about  1,418 
tons)  of  coffee  ; in  the  Padang  Lowlands  to  615  piculs 
(about  50  tons)  ; and  in  Tapanuli  to  5,333  piculs  (313 
tons)  as  against  1,587  tons  produced  in  the  same  Resi- 
dencies by  free  native  labour,  and  421  tons  by  private 
initiation.  On  the  east  coast  of  the  island  the  natives 
produced  1,170  tons  and  the  European  planters  2,226 
tons. 

In  the  neighbourhood  of  Bankulan,  and  in  Palembang 
and  the  Lampong  country,  where  the  growth  of  coffee  is 
tending  to  decrease,  the  natives  produced  267  and  the 
European  planters  233  tons.  Sumatra  does  not  export 
its  coffee  direct,  but  sells  it  on  the  markets  of  Java. 

But  coffee  is  not  enough  to  bring  fortune  to  Sumatra. 
Pepper  and  nutmeg  were  experimented  with;  but  after 
a series  of  trials  the  Government  abandoned  the  intensive 
culture  of  these  products.  The  plantations  did  not 


304 


JAVA 


always  succeed ; or  there  was  an  over-production,  and 
the  prices  fell.  However,  in  addition  to  the  pepper  pro- 
duced by  Acheen  and  Palembang  in  1907,  Sumatra  pro- 
duced as  much  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  as  in  Acheen  ; 
namely,  380  tons  of  nutmeg  and  56  tons  of  mace  ; but 
most  of  this  was  produced  by  natives. 

It  is  tobacco  that  should  make  the  fortune  of  Sumatra, 
or  at  least  of  the  large  European  companies  in  Sumatra. 
Tobacco  has  succeeded  wonderfully,  as  regards  both 
quality  and  quantity,  on  all  the  east  coast  plantations  : 
in  Sangkat,  Deli,  Serdang,  Tamiang,  Padang,  Bedagei, 
Batu  Baro,  Asahan,  and  the  Karo  country ; but  now, 
owing  to  the  formation  of  a powerful  trust,  all  the  plan- 
tations have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a powerful  financial 
group,1  which  employs  thousands  of  hands — Malays, 
Bataks,  Hindus,  Chinese,  and  even  Javanese2 3  emigrants 
from  their  own  over-populated  country,  and  has  built 
for  their  use  dormitories,  a vast  hospital,  canteens,  and 
steward’s  offices. 

The  production  of  tobacco  in  1907  amounted  to 
23,342  tons,  slightly  inferior  in  quantity  to  that  of  Java, 
but  superior  in  quality,  and  representing  a value  of 
■£3,25o,oo°.  In  1906  the  crop  was  exceptionally  good, 
representing  a value  of  ^5,083, 540. 

Here  is  a very  river  of  gold,  which  the  natives  ought 
to  be  enabled,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Government,  to 
swell  by  individual  enterprise,  and  so  turn  aside  some 
part  of  it  to  their  own  profit. 

VII. 

Such  figures  as  these  show  us  what  Sumatra  might 
become  from  the  economic  point  of  view,  especially  if 
the  means  of  communication  were  improved  ; for  we 

1 Hindus  and  Chinese  are  not  allowed  to  rent  or  buy  land  in 

this  part  of  Sumatra. 

3 The  Javanese  are  not  greatly  valued  as  agricultural  labourers  in 
Sumatra ; the  climate  does  not  suit  them,  nor  do  they  grow  accus- 
tomed to  it.  They  are  easy  to  handle,  but  are  not  strong. 


SUMATRA  AND  RIOUW  LINGGA  305 


must  admit  that  at  present  they  leave  much  to  be  desired. 
Along  the  seaboard  belt  roads  are  bad  and  infrequent, 
although  the  Government  is  doing  its  best,  by  means  of 
such  compulsory  labour  as  is  available,  to  open  up  as 
many  as  possible  and  to  maintain  those  that  already 
exist.  In  the  interior  there  are  practically  no  means  of 
transport  whatever,  excepting  almost  impracticable  paths 
or  trails  which  the  inhabitants,  who  as  yet  are  far  from 
submission,  insist  upon  leaving  as  they  are,  with  sullen 
and  perhaps  instinctive  obstinacy.  In  case  of  rebellion 
they  can  take  refuge  in  the  impenetrable  jungle,  and  defy, 
at  least  for  a time,  the  advance  of  the  Dutch  troops. 

We  should  seek  in  vain  through  Sumatra  for  the  fellow 
to  the  wonderful  road  from  Anjer  to  Panarukan  which 
even  to-day  astonishes  the  visitor  to  Java  ; the  iron  hand 
of  Daendels  and  the  docile  spirit  of  the  Javanese  have  been 
equally  unknown  in  Sumatra.  The  Dutch  Government, 
than  which  no  one  is  more  conscious  of  the  strategical 
and  political  necessity  of  good  roads,  is  slowly  but  surely 
supplying  them,  with  a continuity  and  a determination 
that  are  necessary  in  dealing  with  the  populations  of 
Sumatra.  Within  fifteen  years  from  now,  thanks  to  the 
State,  and  to  private  enterprise,  the  seaboard  regions  at 
least  will  be  well  provided  with  roads. 

In  the  meantime  there  are  already  187  miles  of  railway 
in  Sumatra,  belonging  partly  to  the  State  and  partly  to 
private  companies,  and  more  are  about  to  be  built.  To 
these  187  miles,  of  which  the  line  to  Deli  takes  50  and 
the  lines  on  the  west  coast  137,  we  must  add  98  miles  of 
steam  tramways,  by  means  of  which  Belawan,  Medan, 
Deli,  and  Tuwa  are  connected  with  a branch  running 
from  Medan  to  Timbang-Langkat  and  Salesseh,  and 
250  miles  which  runs  along  the  east  coast  and  through 
the  centre  of  Acheen.  The  lines  from  Deli  are  intended 
especially  for  commercial  purposes,  and  serve  the  great 
tobacco  plantations ; the  Acheen  line  is  more  of  a 
strategical  value.  Convinced  that  Acheen  would  never 
be  subjected  until  columns  of  troops  could  be  carried 
swiftly  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom  to  the  other,  the 

21 


306 


JAVA 


Government  has  built  a line  connecting  the  principal 
towns  : Tandjung,  Kala,  Idi,  Lha  Seumawei,  Samalanga, 
Sigli,  Kota  Radja,  and  Oleh-Leh.  It  has  thus  succeeded 
in  pacifying  the  entire  coast,  and  when  once  the  interior 
of  the  country  is  made  accessible  by  good  roads  the 
Achinese  resistance  will  be  vanquished. 

The  west  coast  of  Sumatra  is  partly  served  by  a rack 
railway,  which  is  at  once  of  commercial  and  strategical 
value  ; it  starts  from  Pajakombo,  passes  through  Fort 
de  Kock,  the  key  of  the  Bataks’  country  and  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Menangkabau,  and  at  Padang  Padjang 
throws  off  a branch  line  towards  the  Singkarah  region, 
which  serves  the  mines  of  Ombilin,  and  carries  not  only 
minerals,  but  the  coffee  crops  of  the  whole  Padang 
region,  to  Padang  itself  and  to  Emmahaven.  The  trade 
of  the  interior  of  the  country  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
the  rivers,  principally  by  the  native  praus,  the  magnifi- 
cent streams  of  Sumatra  being  too  badly  impeded  by 
alluvial  deposits  to  allow  steamers  or  vessels  of  high 
tonnage  upon  more  than  a very  small  part  of  their 
length.  The  exportation  of  the  goods  collected  by  the 
prau  traffic  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  means  of  small  coast- 
ing vessels,  or  by  the  Koninklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij, 
which  touches  at  Kroe  and  at  Sabang  every  fortnight ; 
thus  connecting  Sumatra  with  the  Archipelago  and  the 
outer  world.  A line  of  English  steamers  also  carries  on 
an  active  export  and  import  trade  with  Singapore,  this 
trade  being  especially  brisk  in  the  case  of  Eastern 
Sumatra. 

So  soon  as  there  is  a complete  political  understanding 
between  Holland  and  the  peoples  of  Sumatra,  and  the 
latter  at  last  consent  to  exploit  the  riches  of  their  island  ; 
so  soon  as  good  highways  or  further  railways  make 
transport  and  travelling  an  easy  matter,  Sumatra  will 
be  able  to  rival  Java  in  wealth  ; and  its  population  will 
rapidly  increase  tenfold. 


CHAPTER  XV 


BORNEO 

I.  Dimensions  of  Borneo  : how  divided  among  the  Powers. — II. 
Orography  and  hydrography. — III.  Climate,  flora,  and  fauna. — 

IV.  The  inhabitants  : their  manners  and  their  civilisation — 

V.  The  establishment  of  Dutch  supremacy  in  Borneo. — VI. 
Administrative  divisions  and  principal  towns. — VII.  The 
economic  situation  ; what  it  may  one  day  become. 


I. 

Borneo,  situated  to  the  north  of  Java,  between  Celebes, 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  the  archipelago  of  Riouw 
Lingga,  washed  by  the  China  Sea,  the  Java  Sea,  the  Sea  of 
Celebes  and  the  Sea  of  Sulu,  is  the  largest  of  all  the 
islands  which  go  to  make  up  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Its 
area  is  285,220  square  miles,  or  seven  or  eight  times  that 
of  Java,  and  half  as  large  again  as  France.  Its  popula- 
tion, however,  is  even  smaller  than  that  of  Sumatra, 
being  only  1,700,000  or  thereabouts  (according  to  the 
most  plausible  estimates).  Only  a portion  of  the  island 
belongs  to  Holland,  and  it  is  still  the  least  known,  the 
least  submissive,  one  of  the  least  civilised,  and  perhaps 
the  least  profitable,  because  the  least  exploited,  of  all  the 
Dutch  colonial  possessions. 

Very  different  in  outline  from  Java,  with  its  long  and 
narrow  shape,  and  Sumatra,  with  its  gracefully  curving 
coast-lines,  or  Celebes,  so  fantastically  formed  of  pro- 
montories and  winding  inlets,  Borneo  gives  the  im- 
pression of  a vast,  squat  island,  covered  with  dense 
forests,  seamed  by  great  rivers,  defended  by  a muddy 

3C7 


308 


JAVA 


littoral,  backed  by  swamps,  the  home  of  pernicious 
vapours  and  putrid  miasmata. 

The  Spaniards  were  the  first  to  land,  in  1521.  The 
Dutch  followed  in  1598  ; perhaps  considerably  earlier. 
They  in  turn  were  followed  by  the  English,  who,  when 
the  Spaniards  had  been  driven  off,  disputed  their  foot- 
hold with  the  Dutch  East  Indies  Company.  The  con- 
flict endured  through  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  without  any  notable  profit  on  either  side,  for 
the  stubborn  savagery  of  the  uncivilised  inhabitants, 
the  treacherous  hypocrisy  of  their  innumerable  princes, 
and  the  suspicious  hostility  of  the  Chinese  rendered  their 
factories  more  precarious  than  profitable. 

In  1892  the  two  rivals  agreed  to  terms  which  definitely 
limit  the  province  of  either.  All  the  north,  and  part  of 
the  west,  or  about  one-third  of  the  island,  was  aban- 
doned by  Holland,  and  so  passed  under  the  real  or 
surreptitious  suzerainty  of  England.  The  Sultanate  of 
Brunei,  formerly  a useful  ally  of  the  Dutch,  is  still 
extant,  but  is  reduced  to  an  insignificant  fraction  of  its 
former  dimensions,  while  the  Sultan’s  authority  is  prac- 
tically illusory ; it  is  under  the  English  protectorate, 
and  sandwiched  between  the  two  heirs  to  its  past 
splendour.  To  the  east  are  the  territories  of  the  British 
North  Borneo  Company,  which  in  the  first  place  were 
ceded  by  Brunei  to  certain  Americans,  but  were  then 
sold  by  the  latter  to  the  English  company.  To  the  west 
is  the  Rajahlik  of  Sarawak,  which  was  created  by  a 
Sultan  of  Brunei  in  1841  for  the  celebrated  James 
Brooke,  and  is  still  governed  by  a member  of  his  family 
under  the  wholly  nominal  suzerainty  of  Brunei.  All 
this  part  of  Borneo — fertile,  well  watered,  with  a rich 
subsoil — has  undoubtedly  profited  by  English  rule  ; it 
has  been  methodically  explored,  as  much  for  scientific 
as  for  economic  reasons  ; the  population  has  increased, 
and  towns  have  sprung  up.  Although  England  has  not 
succeeded,  as  she  had  hoped,  in  making  another  Singa- 
pore of  the  island  of  Labuan,  she  possesses  in  Borneo 
a valuable  and  flourishing  colony. 


* 


GOVERNMENT  OFFICIAL’S  HOME,  BORNEO. 


A ROPE  FERRY,  BORNEO. 


To  face  p.  308. 


BORNEO 


309 


Holland  has  retained  the  suzerainty  of  222,850  square 
miles  of  territory  : that  is,  of  a country  seventeen  times  as 
large  as  Holland  herself,  and  a trifle  larger  than  France, 
and  a population  which  in  1909  was  estimated  by  con- 
jecture, but  without  exaggeration,  as  amounting  to 
1,172,800,  including  55,520  Chinese,  3,140  Arabs,  and 
1,382  Europeans. 


II. 

The  geological  formation  of  Borneo  may  be  largely 
referred  to  the  tertiary  period ; but  in  Borneo  alone 
of  all  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago  fossils  have  been 
found  of  a period  anterior  to  the  tertiary.  There  is 
much  less  evidence  of  volcanic  action  in  Borneo  than  in 
the  rest  of  the  Archipelago. 

The  island  is  crossed  by  a series  of  mountainous  tracts 
running  from  the  north-east  to  the  south-west,  where 
they  spread  out  into  several  distinct  ranges.  In  the 
centre  of  the  island  also  there  are  some  ramifications 
of  the  main  range,  less  notable  than  those  of  the  south- 
west, which  run  in  a south-easterly  direction.  The 
northern  part  of  the  chain  contains  the  highest  peaks 
of  the  whole  Archipelago  : Kinibalu,  for  example,  on 
the  territory  of  the  British  North  Borneo  Company,  has 
been  given  by  the  latest  explorers  a height  of  13,350  feet. 
Batu  Tebang  in  the  Iran  Mountains  is  9,800  feet  high  ; but 
the  crests  of  the  Muller  and  Schwaner  ranges,  which 
slope  towards  the  south,  are  only  some  4,900  to  5,300 
feet  above  sea-level.  Satui,  near  Bandjermasin,  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island,  is  only  some  4,200 
feet  in  height. 

The  rivers  of  Borneo  are  numerous,  with  an  abundant 
flow,  and  many  are  navigable  for  many  miles  inland ; yet 
the  majority  are  impeded  by  mud-banks,  trees,  and  a 
dense  alluvial  ooze,  which  they  carry  seaward  and 
deposit  at  the  mouth,  thus  pushing  the  coast-line  further 
out  to  sea,  but  making  it  pestiferous  with  fetid  and 
poisonous  swamps. 


310 


JAVA 


The  chief  rivers  of  the  west  coast  are  the  Brunei, 
flowing  through  British  Borneo,  on  the  estuary  of  which 
is  the  capital  of  the  same  name,  and  the  Redjang,  and  on 
Dutch  territory  the  Kapuas,  which  is  considerably  longer 
than  the  others,  flowing  into  the  sea  through  a muddy 
delta  some  70  miles  in  width. 

The  rivers  of  the  east  coast,  especially  those  draining 
Dutch  territory,  are  of  still  greater  importance  ; they  are 
the  Serojan,  the  Mentaja  Sampit,  the  Katingan  and  the 
vast  Barito,  which  is  navigable  far  up  its  course  by  vessels 
of  considerable  tonnage.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Barito  is 
Bandjersmasin,  the  great  port  of  Eastern  Borneo.  At 
a distance  of  60  miles  above  the  sea  the  Barito  divides 
into  two  branches,  both  of  which  are  navigable,  and  one 
of  which  receives  the  waters  of  another  large  river, 
the  Kapuas.  The  result  of  such  a mingling  of  mud  and 
water  is  a variable,  shifting  delta,  whose  area  is  seldom 
less  than  770  square  miles,  and  which,  in  times  of  flood, 
when  the  Kapuas  and  the  Barito  overflow,  will  some- 
times cover  an  area  of  nearly  11,000  square  miles. 
Further  to  the  east  is  the  Mahakkam,  or  Kubi,  which 
flows  between  low  hills,  and  is  as  muddy  as  the  Barito, 
and  ends  in  a delta  as  huge  and  as  marshy  as  that  of  the 
Barito. 

In  a country  so  heavily  watered  and  so  rich  in  valleys 
there  are  many  lakes,  though  these  cannot  be  compared 
in  size  or  in  depth  with  the  Sea  of  Toba  or  the  Sea  of 
Singkarah  in  Sumatra.  The  more  important  of  these 
lakes  empty  themselves  into  the  western  Kapuas,  the 
Serojan,  and  the  Kutei. 


III. 

The  climate  of  Borneo,  which  is  situated  on  the 
Equator,  is  naturally  extremely  hot,  but  quite  supportable 
owing  to  its  insular  situation  and  the  sea-breeze,  which 
cools  the  whole  island.  As  a rule  the  temperature 
varies  between  720  and  930,  although  it  sometimes  rises 
higher.  It  is  the  terrible  humidity  of  the  atmosphere 


BORNEO 


311 


that  makes  the  climate  dangerous  and  so  inferior  to 
that  of  Java  or  Sumatra  ; a humidity  due  to  the  enor- 
mous rainfall  (the  average  annual  rainfall  amounts  to 
7875  inches),  the  abundant  rivers,  the  dense  forests,  and 
the  innumerable  swamps,  the  source  of  pestilence  and 
fever.  The  climate  is  far  harder  to  support  and  far  more 
pernicious  in  the  interior  than  on  the  coasts,  as  the  sea- 
breeze  falls  flat  amid  the  impenetrable  woods,  where  the 
exuberant  soil  is  always  thick  with  masses  of  decom- 
posing vegetation.  The  flora  of  Borneo  is  extremely  rich 
in  forest  trees,  the  forests  covering  almost  the  whole 
interior  save  for  a few  jungles.  Here  are  found  all  kinds 
of  building  timber,  and  trees  of  all  the  varieties  that 
produce  gums  and  resins  ; so  that  if  sufficient  labour  and 
a sufficiency  of  good  roads  were  available  the  exploitation 
of  the  forests  would  not  merely  tend  to  improve  the 
health  of  the  island,  but  would  enrich  it  incalculably. 
Although  the  flora  of  the  island,  which  recalls  that  of 
India,  Sumatra,  and  Australia,  accordingly  as  one  travels 
to  the  west,  the  south,  or  the  south-east,  is  less  prodi- 
gal than  that  of  the  first  two  countries,  and  more 
vigorous  than  that  of  the  last,  it  also  has  its  own 
characteristics.  One  tree  that  is  particularly  character- 
istic of  Borneo,  by  its  abundance  and  its  beauty,  is  the 
sago-palm  ( Metroxylon  laeve  Mart.,  M.  sagas  Roxb.,  M. 
Rumphii  Wild.),  which  grows  not  only  in  the  interior, 
near  the  rivers,  but  also  by  itself,  in  dense  belts  along 
the  muddy  shores  of  the  great  island.  The  pith  of  the 
sago-palm  extracted  and  pressed  into  cakes  will,  with 
a few  days’  labour,  furnish  over  650  lbs.  of  an  excellent 
food  : in  other  words,  sufficient  to  nourish  a man  for  a 
year.  Although  there  is  little  progress  in  Borneo,  there 
is  evidently  no  possibility  of  dying  of  hunger  : nature, 
by  furnishing  man’s  necessities  at  the  cost  of  the  slightest 
effort,  has  discouraged  him,  so  to  speak,  from  desiring 
anything  more. 

The  fauna  of  Borneo  resembles  that  of  Sumatra,  except 
that  the  tiger  is  rare  or  absent ; the  elephant  and  the 
rhinoceros  are  encountered  principally  in  the  north-east 


312 


JAVA 


of  the  island;  panthers  abound,  and  are  extensively 
hunted,  their  skins  forming  part  of  the  accoutrement  of 
the  Dyak  warriors.  In  Borneo,  as  in  Java,  the  great 
wild  bull,  or  banteng,  is  found ; there  are  herds  of 
deer,  which  are  hunted  with  the  spear  or  the  bow  ; 
last,  but  not  least,  comes  the  orang-outang,  or  “ man  of 
the  woods,”  who  is  thought  to  have  originated  in  Borneo. 
Numerous  crocodiles  infest  the  shore  and  the  mud- 
banks  of  the  rivers.  The  inhabitants  of  Borneo  have 
added  practically  nothing  to  the  fauna,  except  by 
domesticating  the  goat,  the  pig,  the  dog,  and  the  cat. 
On  the  west  coast  there  is  an  imported  race  of  dogs 
with  black  tongues,  which  are  greatly  esteemed  as  food 
by  the  Chinese. 


IV. 

Of  the  very  small  population  of  Dutch  Borneo 
(1,172,680  souls)  probably  rather  less  than  a million 
belong  to  the  Dyak  tribes,  who  are  the  real  natives  of 
the  country.  These  Dyaks,  scattered  over  a vast  area, 
and  differentiated  according  to  their  locality,  have  often 
been  regarded  as  belonging  to  different  races  ; but  the 
contrary  opinion  is  as  prevalent  to-day.  A matter  which 
is  less  clear  is  whether  the  Dyaks  are  autochthonous  in 
Borneo.  Not  long  ago,  from  the  testimony  of  Arab 
writers,  who  were  fertile  in  curious  but  sometimes  over- 
marvellous recitals,  and  the  reports  of  credulous  explorers, 
it  was  believed  that  the  Dyaks  had  driven  back  into  the 
heart  of  the  island  the  original  sons  of  the  soil — those 
savages  with  a caudal  appendix,  whom  contemporary 
science  has  failed  to  trace.  It  would  be  more  rational  to 
admit  the  continued  existence  in  the  central  forests  of 
a few  handfuls  of  stunted  and  miserable  savages,  now 
disappearing,  armed  only  with  the  bow  and  the  blowpipe, 
black-skinned,  and  in  every  way  resembling  the  Negritos 
of  the  Philippines.  The  Dyaks  who  have  replaced  them 
are  visibly  of  the  Malayo-Polynesian  race,  near  relatives 
of  the  Bataks  of  Sumatra,  and  also,  it  would  seem,  of  the 


BORNEO 


313 


Chams,  Bahnars,  Stiengs,  Radeis,  and  Djareis  of  French 
Indo-China.  Whether  indigenous  or  not,  they  are,  as 
regards  their  physical  aspect,  extremely  well  built ; taller 
and  stronger  than  the  Malays  and  the  Javanese,  with 
features  fairly  regular,  and  their  faces,  with  their  clear 
yellowish  colouring,  are  not  displeasing,  despite  the 
flattening  of  the  nose  and  the  prominence  of  the  lips. 
Their  manner  is  cheerful  and  confident.  The  Dyak 
has  the  reputation  of  being  hospitable  and  honest,  but 
extremely  idle,  indifferent  as  to  the  truth,  hasty  and 
quarrelsome  when  he  considers  himself  affronted,  and 
passionately  fond  of  his  independence  and  the  nomadic 
life.  But  in  speaking  of  the  Dyaks  we  ought  to  dis- 
tinguish between  those  of  the  coast  and  those  of  the 
interior.  The  riverside  Dyaks,  who  have  a strong 
admixture  of  Malay  and  a strain  of  Chinese  and  Bugis 
blood,  were  formerly  subjects  of  the  Indo-Javanese 
empire,  as  is  proved  by  the  names  of  their  towns  and 
rivers,  and  the  existence  of  a few  inconspicuous  ruins 
of  temples,  buried  under  masses  of  vegetation  and  the 
oblivion  of  generations.  They  have  also  had  long  and 
unbroken  relations  with  the  Chinese  and  Arabs.  Partially 
Islamised,  at  least  in  name,  they  form  a race  less  pure 
than  the  other  Dyaks,  but  more  civilised  and  more 
sedentary,  and  capable,  together  with  a duplicity  often 
acquired  by  contact  with  foreigners,  of  more  intelligent 
and  energetic  application.  Their  masters  in  civilisation 
are  the  Malays,  who  treat  them  somewhat  as  semi- 
savages, but  often  form  alliances  with  them,  recuperating 
their  own  stock  from  the  vitality  of  the  energetic  Dyaks, 
and  converting  them  to  Islam. 

The  Dyaks  of  the  interior,  vitiated  by  the  stifling 
atmosphere  of  the  tropical  forest,  decimated  by  small- 
pox, cholera,  dysentery,  and  fevers,  lead  a nomadic, 
undisciplined  existence ; hostile  to  the  foreigner  who 
would  tempt  them  to  profitable  labour,  and  the  enemies 
of  all  regular  and  fatiguing  work  ; and  attached,  above 
all,  to  their  strange  and  brutal  customs.  Although  these 
customs  vary  from  tribe  to  tribe,  we  may  describe 


314 


JAVA 


the  Dyak  in  general  as  clad  in  a girdle  or  loin-cloth  of 
beaten  bark,  while  the  woman  wears  a short  petticoat 
and  vest  of  the  same  material,  or  perhaps  of  cotton  stuff. 
Both  sexes  wear  bracelets  of  bamboo  or  rattan  fibre 
on  arms  and  ankles,  to  which  the  women  add  a collar. 
Both  sexes  almost  invariably  wear  their  long  hair  twisted 
into  a chignon,  while  the  head  is  covered  with  a hand- 
kerchief or  a length  of  cotton  knotted  turban-wise  about 
the  head  ; or  in  some  cases  the  men  wear  a kind  of  cap 
and  the  women  a hat  woven  of  rattan.  Certain  tribes 
of  the  interior  tattoo  the  whole  or  part  of  the  body  with 
a variety  of  designs,  according  to  the  sex  and  the  social 
rank  of  the  individual.  On  such  occasions  as  private  or 
public  banquets  the  costume  is  embellished  with  bracelets 
of  pewter,  copper,  or  beadwork.  All  have  the  teeth 
lacquered  ; the  Olo  Ngadju  even  insert  little  rivets  of 
gold  between  the  blackened  teeth. 

The  Dyaks  would  eat  little  indeed  if  they  had  to  exist 
upon  their  few  rice-fields,  and  if  nature  did  not  work  for 
them.  As  it  is  they  are  much  more  difficult  to  satisfy 
in  the  matter  of  diet  than  the  majority  of  semi-civilised 
races,  and  are  greatly  given  to  large  banquets,  at  which 
they  conscientiously  over-eat  themselves,  and  drink  an 
often  immoderate  quantity  of  palm-wine  or  toddy. 
Their  diet  consists  of  rice,  sago,  various  vegetables, 
fruits,  young  shoots  of  bamboo  or  rattan,  the  head  of 
the  cabbage-palm,  and  meat  and  fish,  fresh,  salted,  or 
dried.  Salt  is  their  favourite  condiment.  They  chew 
betel  and  smoke  tobacco. 

Their  houses,  built  of  wood  and  elevated  on  piles,  and 
often  surrounded  by  little  gardens  containing  sugar-cane, 
betel,  and  pimento,  are  neat  and  clean.  Sometimes  the 
whole  village — as  among  certain  semi-civilised  peoples 
of  Indo-China — consists  of  one  immensely  long  house, 
divided  into  as  many  compartments  as  there  are  families. 
The  village  nearly  always  possesses  a communal  house, 
raised  upon  piles  like  the  rest,  very  large  and  well  built, 
where  public  deliberations  take  place.  Large  banquets 
are  held  there,  and  the  bachelors  and  guests  of  the  tribe 


DYAKS  AT  KUTJUNG,  SARAWAK. 


BORNEO 


315 


make  use  of  it  as  their  dormitory,  as  with  the  Bahnars  of 
Indo-China. 

The  ordinary  appliances  of  life,  such  as  furniture, 
cooking  utensils  and  agricultural  implements,  are  very 
rudimentary  among  the  Dyaks ; but  they  are  great 
lovers  of  music,  dancing,  tales  and  riddles,  and,  again 
like  the  Bahnars,  they  collect  metal  gongs  and  certain 
kinds  of  vessels  which  may  become  the  homes  of 
protecting  spirits. 

In  the  interior  they  are  not  great  hunters,  but  in  such 
hunting  as  they  pursue  their  weapon  is  the  spear  or  the 
bow  ; snares  and  traps  are  more  commonly  used.  Their 
favourite  game  is  the  deer,  whose  flesh  they  dry.  They 
are  more  energetic  as  fishermen,  and  their  rivers  are 
plentifully  stocked,  while  on  the  coast  the  celebrated 
trubnk  is  often  encountered  in  shoals.  The  Dyaks 
cultivate  a little  rice  and  a few  sweet  potatoes  in  a very 
primitive  manner,  and  without  much  enthusiasm ; but 
they  feed  principally  on  the  products  of  the  forest. 

Marriage  among  the  Dyaks  is  sometimes  exogamic, 
sometimes  endogamic  ; but  although  the  Dyak  woman 
is  the  object  of  extreme  respect  in  the  tribe  and  in  her 
home,  the  husband  alone  is  the  head  of  the  community ; 
though  when  he  dies  the  wife  may  succeed  him,  inheriting 
his  duties  and  his  dignity.  Marriages  are  conducted  by 
means  of  go-betweens,  and  the  prospective  husband  must 
first  give  his  future  parents-in-law  a present,  even  if  the 
latter  are  opposed  to  the  marriage. 

The  young  people  of  the  tribe  are  free,  from  puberty 
onwards,  to  make  their  own  choice  ; but  in  practice  they 
nearly  always  allow  themselves  to  be  guided  by  their 
parents. 

The  birth  of  twins,  as  with  many  peoples  of  the  Far 
East,  is  regarded  as  unlucky. 

The  Dyaks,  who  are  neither  Mahomedans  nor 
Christians,  practise  circumcision  and  a kind  of  baptism, 
without  any  idea  of  religion  attaching  to  either  ceremony. 
They  sometimes  expose  their  dead  in  trees,  and  some- 
times burn  them.  Certain  tribes  of  the  Upper  Kapuas 


316 


JAVA 


bury  them,  and  collect  the  bones  in  the  family  tomb 
after  the  flesh  has  disappeared.1  Others  hollow  out  part 
of  the  trunk  of  a growing  tree,  and  insert  the  corpse  in 
the  hollow.  The  bark  is  carefully  replaced  over  the 
opening,  and  the  tree  continues  to  grow  and  flourish, 
a living  tomb,  in  the  literal  sense. 

The  language  of  the  Dyaks  is  closely  related  to  the 
other  Malayo- Polynesian  dialects.  They  have  no  alpha- 
bet, no  writing,  but  their  psychical  concepts  are  fairly 
definite.  The  Dyaks  of  the  north  are  animists  ; for  them 
everything  is  haunted  by  a spirit,  a soul,  which  has  the 
power  of  leaving  the  living  or  inanimate  object  (if  we 
may  use  the  word  inanimate  in  this  connection),  which 
serves  it  as  envelope.  It  is  this  straying  of  the  soul 
which  in  man  causes  sickness ; or  death,  if  the  fugitive 
will  not  consent  to  return. 

The  Dyaks  believe  in  a supreme,  creative  god,  whose 
name  varies  with  the  different  tribes  ; but  they  think  far 
less  of  him  than  of  the  evil  spirits  which  people  all  space  : 
spirits  divided  into  categories  according  to  their  habitat, 
and  to  whom  all  moral  and  physical  ills  are  attributed  : 
such  as  epidemics,  death,  and  the  failure  of  crops. 
Priest-sorcerers  (the  part  may  be  filled  by  a woman), 
balians  or  basirs,  propitiate  them  by  sacrifice,  and  by 
prayers  in  a special  language  known  as  basa  sang  yang, 
“ the  tongue  of  the  spirits,"  which  is  also  employed  in 
incantations. 

The  Dyaks  of  the  south  are  shamanists,  and  equally 
superstitious.  The  sorcerer  is  the  chief  regulator  of  their 
lives,  and  often  their  plague,  as  is  the  bojau  among  the 
Bahnars. 

The  Dyaks  have  earned  their  regrettable  celebrity  by 
their  barbarous  custom  of  head-hunting.  It  is  now, 
thanks  to  the  efforts  of  both  Dutch  and  English, 
abandoned  in  the  river  districts,  but  is  still  extant  in 
all  its  vigour  in  the  central  forests. 

No  Dyak  can  become  a chief  (among  the  tribes  who 
still  honour  the  custom),  and  no  man  may  take  a wife, 
' The  Chams  have  a similar  custom. 


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317 


unless  he  first  bring  to  the  village  notables  one  or  more 
heads,  collected  from  some  neighbouring  tribe  after  a 
dangerous  expedition,  which  may  last  for  several  days. 
A father,  to  win  a favourable  destiny  for  a child  about  to 
be  born,  will  offer  the  mother  the  present  of  a freshly 
severed  head.  On  occasions  of  especial  importance  the 
whole  tribe,  having  submitted  to  the  essentially  religious 
ordeals  of  fasting  and  abstinence,  and  having  undergone 
purification  and  joined  in  funeral  dances,  departs  in  quest 
of  its  horrible  prize. 

This  custom,  on  account  of  which  the  Dyaks  were 
formerly  accused  of  cannibalism,  is  of  a definitely 
ritualistic  character  ; its  aim  is  to  obtain  the  soul  of  the 
dead  man  as  the  protector  of  the  killer  and  of  his  village. 
For  this  reason  the  heads,  being  thoroughly  dried, 
cleaned,  and  ornamented  with  flowers,  are  the  object  of 
a regular  cult.  The  Dyaks  never  forget,  when  feasting, 
to  offer  them  the  tit-bits  of  every  dish,  and  the  customary 
quids  of  betel-nut,  in  order  to  induce  them,  by  such  kind 
attentions,  to  adopt  their  new  tribe. 


V. 

It  will  be  imagined  that  the  presence  of  such  a race 
made  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  in  Borneo  a some- 
what unprofitable  and  far  from  easy  matter,  and  this  for 
many  generations. 

As  early  as  1609  the  Company  of  the  East  Indies  had 
successfully  entered  into  relations  with  the  kingdom  of 
Sambas ; later  on,  with  the  kingdoms  of  Mampawa, 
Sukadana,  and  Bandjermasin.  The  factories  established 
yielded  such  trifling  returns  that  Daendels  had  them 
abandoned  in  1809  in  order  to  concentrate  the  entire 
forces  of  Holland  upon  the  remainder  of  her  spacious 
empire,  and  especially  upon  Java.  Colonisation  was 
resumed  only  in  1816,  when  the  Government  had  to 
contend  with  not  only  the  aims  of  the  English,  but  with 
the  open  hostility  of  the  Chinese  who  had  settled  on  the 
east  coast  of  Borneo  near  the  rich  mines  of  Landak 


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and  Montrado,  and  had  organised  themselves  into 
confraternities  or  kongsis  (tongs). 

These  Chinese  kongsis  waged  a war  of  defence  from 
1853  to  1856.  Their  defeat  gave  the  Dutch  the  territory 
of  Montrado  ; in  1864,  having  reduced  or  won  over  by 
pecuniary  advantages  the  little  Principalities  of  Western 
Borneo,  the  Dutch  had  no  longer  anything  to  fear  upon 
the  coast  but  the  depredations  of  the  Dyaks  of  the 
interior. 

The  conquest  of  the  south-east  commenced  with  the 
cession  of  the  Sultanate  of  Bandjermasin  by  a series  of 
treaties  (1817,  1823,  1826) ; but  it  was  a long  and  difficult 
affair  ; more  so  than  the  conquest  of  the  west  coast, 
owing  to  the  warlike  temper  of  the  peoples  of  Kotaringin 
and  Kutei.  In  1844  the  province  was  constituted, 
although  it  was  impossible  to  guarantee  it  against  the 
incursions  of  unsubjected  Dyaks,  the  intrigues  of  the 
Chinese,  and  the  piracies  of  the  Bugis  and,  above  all,  of 
the  Suluans.  In  1859  a terrible  revolt  broke  out  at  the 
mines  of  Orange-Nassau,  then  but  recently  opened  ; it 
was  subdued  only  in  1866  ; and  further  outbreaks  were 
followed  by  two  punitive  expeditions,  in  1870  and  1873. 
Since  then  the  peace  of  Borneo  has  been  troubled  but 
little  or  not  at  all. 


VI. 

The  Dutch  portion  of  the  island  is  divided  into  two 
Residencies  : that  of  the  west  and  that  of  the  south  and 
east. 

The  Residency  of  the  west  of  Borneo  has  for  capital 
the  town  of  Pontianak  (20,989  inhabitants,  of  whom  223 
are  Europeans,  7,085  Chinese,  and  212  Arabs),  situated 
on  the  northern  branch  of  the  Kapuas,  whose  wide  waters 
glide  silently  between  two  lines  of  virgin  foliage.  Ponti- 
anak, built  upon  mud-banks,  is  a true  lacustrean  city  ; its 
canals  and  its  little  bridges  uniting  mud-banks  and 
houses  remind  one  of  Venice  or  of  Holland  rather  than 
the  Indies.  All  the  houses,  including  those  of  the 


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319 


European  quarter,  are  built  upon  piles  ; the  palace  of  the 
Governor  himself  is  founded  on  arches  of  masonry, 
through  which  the  river  flows.  The  houses  of  the 
natives  are  of  wood,  roofed  with  atap  or  corrugated  iron, 
and  are  grouped  together  in  kampongs.  They  have  a 
poverty-stricken  appearance  beside  the  Chinese  quarter, 
which  is  even  more  remarkable  for  its  neatness  and 
cleanliness  than  for  its  activity.  Its  tokos  are  sheltered  by 
long  verandahs,  which,  supported  by  posts  of  ironwood, 
line  the  footpaths  and  streets.  The  Chinese  kampong  is 
the  centre  of  all  the  important  business  affairs  of  the 
town.  It  is  overlooked  by  a pretty  mosque  with  three 
superimposed  roofs,  which  stands  on  a little  island  close 
at  hand.  The  Malay  village  is  busy  and  animated,  but 
less  well  kept.  The  palace  of  the  Sultan,  at  the  edge  of 
a little  bay,  is  a large  building  of  one  story,  surrounded 
by  a high  palisade  of  ironwood,  which  is  backed  by  a 
wall  of  stone.  The  name  alone  is  palatial.  The 
members  of  the  prince’s  family  and  the  high  dignitaries 
of  the  court  live  either  within  the  walls  of  the  palace 
enclosure,  or  beside  the  kraton.  Enthusiasts  declare 
that  the  climate  of  Pontianak  is  healthy,  and  quite 
endurable  ; the  lack  of  drinking-water  is  the  one  serious 
drawback. 

Pontianak  is  assured  of  an  enviable  economic  future 
by  the  neighbourhood  of  valuable  mines,  rather  than  by 
the  meagre  industries  of  the  Dyaks  or  those  of  the  natives 
of  a different  race.  Sambas  (12,096  inhabitants),  the 
capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  same  name,  is  still 
prospering,  thanks  to  the  exploitation  of  the  neighbour- 
ing gold-mines.  The  other  district  capitals  are  Sanggan, 
Katapang,  Nyabang,  Kualakakap,  and  Sintang  ; mush- 
room towns  of  from  three  hundred  to  three  thousand 
inhabitants.  Mampawa  (3,389  inhabitants,  of  whom  1,360 
are  Chinese),  on  the  other  hand,  is  a progressive  town 
with  a future  before  it ; not  because  it  contains,  in  a so- 
called  palace  of  clay,  a Panenbahan,  the  relic  of  bygone 
tyrannies,  but  because  it  is  the  outlet  of  a rich  agricultural 
region.  Tajan  (1,452  inhabitants),  situated  on  the  River 


320 


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Kapuas  at  some  distance  above  Pontianak,  is  another 
town  to  profit  by  the  proximity  of  mineral  wealth. 

The  Residency  of  the  south  and  east  of  Borneo 
(Zuider-en-Oostorafdeeling  van  Borneo)  has  its  capital 
at  Bandjermasin 1 (16,708  inhabitants,  of  whom  453 
are  Europeans,  2,581  Chinese,  and  910  Arabs),  on  the 
beautiful  Barito  River.  Like  Pontianak,  it  has  all  the 
peculiarities  and  all  the  charm  of  a water-city.  Built  at 
the  confluence  {of  the  Barito  and  the  Martapura,  on  the 
little  marshy  islet  of  Titas,  its  houses,  raised  on  piles,  are 
twice  a day  isolated  by  the  tides  ; the  people  go  about  in 
praus,  which  thread  the  muddy  canals,  crossed  by  little 
ironwood  bridges,  which  serve  as  streets.  Bandjer- 
masin, thanks  to  its  fortunate  situation,  is  the  centre  for  all 
the  products  of  the  fluvial  basin  of  the  Barito  : gold-dust, 
coal,  wax,  rattan,  various  gums  and  resins,  copra,  pepper, 
dried  meat,  timber  for  house-  and  ship-building,  baskets, 
mats,  and  the  sea-swallows’  nests  which  are  so  plentiful 
in  the  caves  of  the  coast,  and  which  the  Chinese  buy  so 
eagerly. 

Of  the  district  capitals  Matapura  (9,298  inhabitants) 
was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Sultans  of  Bandjer- 
masin ; Kadangan  (4,070),  Muaratewei,  Marabahan,  and 
Sampit  are  towns  of  little  more,  and  sometimes  less  than 
three  thousand  inhabitants.  Tanah  Grogot,  Kualakapues, 
and  Kota-Baru  are  even  smaller,  and  are  all  awaiting  the 
development  of  the  subsoil.  Amuntai,  thanks  to  its 
proximity  to  the  gold-  and  diamond-mines  of  Nagaru,  is 
already  a growing  town. 

Samarinda,  in  the  east  of  the  Residency,  is  still  more 
prosperous,  although  it  contains  only  4,730  inhabitants, 
of  whom  1,160  are  Chinese.  It  is  built  on  the  delta  of 
the  Mahakkam,  or  Kutei,  which  is  there  over  1,000  yards 
in  width  ; it  contains  a European  quarter,  a palace,  and  a 
shadowy  Sultan,  and  Chinese,  Malay,  Bugi,  Dyak,  and 
Bandjarese  kampongs.  The  Bandjarese,  or  natives  of 

1 Some  authors  profess  that  Bandjermasin  contains  fifty  thousand 
inhabitants,  of  whom  nearly  forty-five  thousand  are  natives  ; that  is, 
Dyaks,  Malays,  Bugis,  &c.  The  others  are  the  official  figures. 


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321 


Bandjermasin,  have  outrivalled  even  the  Chinese  in  the 
exportation  of  rubber  and  rattan.  A dirty  town  of  small, 
squat-houses  with  atap  roofs,  perched  upon  piles  as 
usual,  Samarinda  expects,  none  the  less,  to  become  a 
a considerable  city,  as  the  coal-mines  and  petroleum- 
fields  in  the  neighbouring  district  are  now  in  process 
of  development. 

VII. 

Borneo  has  all  the  gifts  needful  to  make  it  one  of  the 
fairest  and  richest  countries  of  the  globe.  Its  soil  rivals 
that  of  Java  and  Sumatra  in  fertility ; crops  of  all  kinds 
yield  abundantly,  as  may  be  seen  in  British  Borneo, 
where,  thanks  to  the  existence  of  sufficient  labour,  the 
soil  is  covered  with  rich  plantations. 

In  Dutch  Borneo,  vast  as  the  country  is,  there  is  a 
serious  deficiency  of  labour.  Head-hunting,  a birth-rate 
unduly  low,  and  an  enormous  death-rate,  due  to  small- 
pox, dysentery,  cholera,  and  fevers,  leave  the  population 
of  idle  Dyaks  unchanged ; eight-tenths  of  the  soil  is 
virgin  ; a little  tobacco  and  pepper  is  grown,  but  the 
agricultural  yield  of  the  country  is  practically  limited  to 
building  timber,  rubber,  a little  copra,  and  a few  gums, 
waxes,  and  resins  brought  down  from  the  interior  by  the 
praus  that  trade  up  and  down  the  rivers.  There  are 
practically  no  industries ; the  Malays  of  the  west  have 
to  obtain  from  Java  or  Singapore  the  raw  material  for 
the  stuffs  they  weave. 

The  subsoil  is  even  richer  than  the  soil ; neither  Java 
nor  Sumatra  can  compare  with  Borneo  in  the  matter  of 
mineral  wealth.  In  the  basins  of  the  Kapuas,  the 
Martapura,  and  the  Kutei,  and  in  some  of  the  islands  off 
the  coast,  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  antimony,  zinc, 
bismuth,  platinum,  mercury,  arsenic,  coal,  and  petroleum 
are  found.  Diamonds  are  found  in  the  Nagara  district. 
The  Sumbar  district  was  celebrated  centuries  ago  for  the 
famous  Montrado  mines,  and  the  sovereigns  of  the  Far 
East  used  to  dispute  the  possession  of  the  diamonds 
found  in  the  bed  of  the  Martapura,  on  account  of  their 

22 


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JAVA 


perfect  limpidity.  Although  the  diamonds  have  become 
less  plentiful  and  the  gold  is  apparently  giving  out,  there 
are  coal-measures  and  oil-fields,  which  to  our  utilitarian 
eyes  form  a more  solid  form  of  wealth. 

The  official  statistics  relating  to  the  profits  of  agriculture 
in  Borneo — where  its  progress  is  almost  as  dilatory  and 
elusive  as  the  Dyaks  themselves — mention  only  a few 
piculs  of  mace  and  nutmeg  ; but  the  statistics  relating  to 
the  mines  of  Borneo  are  highly  satisfactory. 

In  1907  the  European  concessions  on  the  Kutei  and  at 
Pulu  Laut  yielded  6,000  and  92,800  tons  of  coal  respec- 
tively ; an  amount  sensibly  larger  than  in  the  few 
previous  years.  Native  labour  in  the  west  of  Borneo 
furnished  18,127  tons,  instead  of  2,823  as  in  the  preceding 
year. 

The  petroleum  obtained  by  the  three  large  companies 
working  on  the  Kutei,  of  which  one  is  English  and  two 
Dutch  (the  Kutei  Exploitation  Company  and  the  Dor- 
drecht Petroleum  Company),  amounted  in  1907  to  close 
on  110,000,000  gallons. 

About  600  lb.  of  gold,  6,600  lb.  of  silver,  and  700 
carats  of  diamonds  were  produced  in  the  same  year. 

Transport  is  facilitated  by  the  fine  rivers  of  Borneo. 
The  Royal  Mail  Steamship  Company  unites  Borneo  to 
the  rest  of  the  Archipelago  and  the  outer  world.  A good 
road  runs  along  the  coast  from  Bandjermasin  to  Sama- 
rinda  on  the  one  side  and  to  Sambas  on  the  other. 
When  Holland,  having  at  last  completed  her  work  of 
pacification  in  Sumatra,  is  able  to  concentrate  all  her 
efforts  upon  Borneo,  and  succeeds  in  transforming  the 
Dyaks  into  a more  civilised  and  settled  population,  and 
perhaps  in  transplanting  the  surplus  population  of  Java, 
the  island  will  become  a most  valuable  possession,  and 
wealthy  among  all  the  islands  of  the  Indies. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES 

I.  The  situation  and  aspect  of  Celebes. — II.  The  physical  geography 
of  the  island ; its  climate,  fauna,  and  flora. — III.  The  inhabi- 
tants : Bugis,  Macassars,  Alfours,  Toradjas. — IV.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  Dutch  in  Celebes. — V.  Administrative  divisions  : 
i.  Residency  of  Celebes  and  dependencies ; 2.  Residency  of 
Menado. — VI.  The  economic  outlook  and  the  future  of  Celebes. 


I. 

Celebes,1  situated  to  the  south-east  of  Borneo  and 
separated  therefrom  by  the  Strait  of  Macassar,  is  washed 
on  the  north  by  the  Sea  of  Celebes,  which  divides  it  from 
the  Philippines ; on  the  south  by  the  Sea  of  Banda  and 
the  Sea  of  Flores,  dividing  it  from  the  groups  of  islands 
of  the  same  name.  In  size  it  is  the  third  largest  island 
of  the  Archipelago.  Its  area  is  roughly  76,360  miles, 

1 The  oid  Portuguese  navigators  thought  Celebes  (Selebes)  a 
group  of  islands — a natural  mistake,  if  we  consider  how  the  peri- 
phery is  cut  up  into  numerous  great  promontories  by  deep,  tortuous 
gulfs,  which  have  all  the  appearance  of  straits — and  so  gave  the 
name  the  plural  form.  We  find,  however,  both  singular  and  plural 
forms — Celebe  and  Celebes — in  old  narratives.  Several  explanations 
of  this  name  have  been  proposed  ; for  it  is  unknown  to  the  natives. 
Si  Lubeh  or  Si  Labih  would  mean  “ the  island  up  above  ” and  might 
be  derived  from  instructions  as  to  the  position  of  the  island  given 
by  the  Malays  and  mistaken  for  a name  : such  mistakes  are  fre- 
quent in  geography.  According  to  Skeat  ( Hobson  Jobson,  s.v.  Celebes), 
the  true  form  of  the  word  would  be  Pulau  (island)  Salebih — in  some 
dialects  Su-lebis  or  Si-Lebis,  Si  being  there  equivalent  to  a sort  of 
article  ; and  Lebih,  Lebis  might  be  the  name  of  a man.  The  Malays 
call  Celebes  Tanah  Bugis,  “ the  land  of  the  Bugis.” 

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including  its  dependencies  : that  is,  it  is  rather  more 
than  one-third  as  large  as  France,  and  larger  than  Java, 
though  smaller  than  Sumatra.  Its  population,  however, 
amounts  to  851,905  only;  a very  small  figure  compared 
with  the  30,000,000  of  Java. 

Celebes  would  seem  to  have  been  created  by  nature  in 
a capricious  moment,  such  a medley  of  bold  promon- 
tories, jutting  peninsulas,  curving  bays,  and  deep  gulfs 
does  its  outline  present.  It  has  been  compared  with  the 
hand  of  a gouty  patient,  a scorpion,  a crocodile,  and, 
more  modestly,  with  a shrimp ; in  any  case  its  coastal 
development  is  abnormal  in  comparison  with  its  area, 
for  it  equals  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  France  combined  ; 
while  the  northern  peninsula  is  attached  to  the  southern 
by  an  isthmus  barely  18  miles  in  width.  The  whole 
island,  some  470  miles  in  length,  has  an  average  width 
of  only  some  36  to  120  miles. 

Celebes,  in  short,  is  composed  of  four  peninsulas, 
connected  by  means  of  narrow  tracts  of  land  and  divided 
by  the  Bay  of  Boni  on  the  south,  the  Bay  of  Tolo  on  the 
east,  and  the  Bay  of  Tomini  on  the  south-east. 

II. 

Celebes  is  traversed  from  south  to  north  by  a range 
of  volcanic  mountains ; that  range  which  connects  the 
whole  East  Indian  system  with  the  system  of  Mindanao 
and  the  Philippines,  by  means  of  a host  of  scattered  islets 
of  granite,  which  rise  from  a profoundly  deep  sea.  This 
long  chain  pushes  out  a subsidiary  range  along  the 
peninsula  dividing  the  Bays  of  Tomini  and  Boni.  The 
northern  portion  of  the  island  is  the  more  mountainous, 
although  the  isolated  peaks  are  not  so  high  ; thus  Gunung 
Kalabat,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  range,  attains  a 
height  of  6,560  feet  only,  while  Lompo  Batang  in  the 
extreme  south  attains  a height  of  10,000  feet.  Although 
the  mountains  of  Celebes  have  proved  their  volcanic 
origin  by  frequent  earthquakes,  no  active  volcanoes  have 
been  observed  in  either  Celebes  or  Borneo. 


MARKET  AT  CELEBES. 


SIMATRF.SE  GIRLS  AT  WORK. 


To  lace  p.  324. 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  325 


On  such  narrow  tracts  of  land  the  rivers  have  scarcely 
room  to  develop  ; so  that  although  they  are  sufficiently 
swollen  during  the  rainy  season,  they  are  almost  without 
exception  extremely  short.  The  Bahu  Solo,  in  the 
peninsula  between  the  Gulfs  of  Boni  and  Tolo,  which 
has  its  source  in  Lake  Tawuti,  is  nearly  150  miles  long ; 
the  Sadang,  in  the  Macassar  peninsula,  is  250  miles  in 
length ; but  the  Rano-i-Apo  in  Minehasa,  the  Poigar, 
Malibagoei,  Taludaw,  and  the  Djenemadja  are  all  shorter. 
The  whole  island  is  strewn  with  lakes,  the  largest  of 
which  is  Tawuti ; but  Lakes  Tempa  or  Tamparang, 
Posso,  and  Lindu  are  not  far  inferior  in  size.  All  these 
are  in  the  southern  portion  of  Celebes ; but  there  is  in 
the  northern  peninsula,  in  the  mountains  of  Minahasa 
at  a height  of  2,000  feet,  a little  lake  set  in  a marvellous 
landscape  and  a waterfall  famed  through  the  whole 
Archipelago.  This  is  Lake  Tondano. 

The  climate  of  Celebes,  like  that  of  Borneo,  is  extremely 
hot,  and  less  equable  than  that  of  Java  or  Sumatra.  The 
difference  between  the  day  and  the  night  temperature  is 
often  as  much  as  180  Fahr.,  though  the  average  is  less. 
Moreover,  the  abundant  rains,  the  thunderstorms,  and 
the  sea-breezes,  which  reach  the  slightest  eminence  in  a 
country  so  completely  open  to  the  sea,  render  the  climate 
of  Celebes  quite  endurable  and  at  some  seasons  even 
agreeable.  The  climate  of  Celebes  has  one  great  advan- 
tage over  that  of  Borneo  : the  sloping  surface  of  the  island 
allows  the  rain  to  run  off  quickly  into  the  sea,  so  that  there 
are  hardly  anywhere  such  marshes  as  those  of  Borneo, 
which  fill  the  atmosphere  with  so  noxious  a humidity. 
For  this  reason  Celebes,  in  spite  of  its  heat,  has  the 
name  of  being  the  healthiest  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

The  flora  of  Celebes,  thanks  to  its  maritime  situation, 
the  fertility  of  its  volcanic  soil,  and  its  position  under  the 
Equator,  is  as  rich  and  varied  as  any  in  the  Indies.  It  is 
as  plentiful  in  the  plains  as  on  the  mountains  ; but  its 
character,  which  is  Indian  in  the  western  portion,  tends 
to  the  Australian  on  the  eastern  slopes.  Palms  of  all  sorts, 
camphor-trees,  cinnamon,  nutmegs,  cloves,  tree-ferns,  and 


326 


JAVA 


countless  varieties  of  the  most  extraordinary  orchids  are 
found  intermingled.  The  immense  forests  of  the  interior 
furnish  many  kinds  of  timber.  Tobacco  and  coffee  grow 
excellently ; in  Celebes  is  found  the  Antiaris  toxicaria 
Lesch.,  from  which  upas,  a terrible  poison,  is  drawn. 

The  fauna  of  the  western  portion  of  Celebes  recalls 
that  of  Borneo  and  Sumatra,  although  the  tiger  and  the 
elephant  are  absent.  It  includes  the  buffalo,  the  wild 
bull,  the  Celebes  boar,  which  is  particularly  ferocious, 
many  deer,  and  the  last  species  of  monkey  to  be  found 
in  the  Archipelago.  On  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  island 
commence  the  marsupials  which  abound  in  New  Guinea 
and  Australia.  In  the  north  is  a special  antelope,  the 
anuang,  or  “cow  of  the  woods"  (Anoa  depressicornis),1 2 * * 
whose  flesh  is  eaten  almost  daily ; and  among  the 
domestic  animals  are  some  excellent  little  horses.  There 
are  many  birds  of  dazzling  colour — birds  of  paradise, 
parrots,  &c. — and  hosts  of  butterflies  ; the  latter  form 
one  of  the  characteristics  of  the  island.8 

III. 

The  inhabitants  of  Celebes  belong  to  the  ethnographic 
and  linguistic  Malayo-Polynesian  group.  Despite  their 
close  relationship  to  this  group,  they  present  very  distinct 
differences  among  themselves,  as  a result  of  geographical 
and  historical  factors ; so  that  the  natives  of  the  north 
and  of  the  south  have  by  certain  explorers  been  regarded 
as  different  peoples. 

The  Macassars,  to  the  number  of  some  230,000,  occupy 
the  western  portion  of  the  southern  peninsula ; the 
Bugis,  twice  as  numerous,  and  supposed  to  be  im- 
migrants from  the  kingdom  of  Boni,  inhabit  the  southern 
portion  and  the  coasts  of  Celebes. 

The  name  Alfours  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  inhabi- 

1 Malay,  bandogo  tutu,  sapi  utan ; Bugi,  anuwang. 

2 The  best  and  most  recent  description  of  the  island  of  Celebes  is 

that  of  Paul  and  Fritz  Sarasin,  Reiseti  in  Celebes  ausgefiihrt  in  den 

Jahren  1893-1896  und  1902-1903  (Wiesbaden,  Kreidel,  1905,2  vols.). 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  327 


tants  of  Minahasa  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  and 
sometimes  to  all  the  semi-civilised  inhabitants,  whether 
of  Celebes  or  the  Lesser  Moluccas  and  the  Sulu  Islands. 
For  the  Mahomedan  inhabitants  of  Celebes  all  “heathen 
pig-eaters”  are  Alfours.  Finally,  the  semi-civilised  moun- 
taineers of  Central  Celebes  are  known  as  Toradjas ; 
and  as  this  mountainous  region  is  inhabited  by  people 
of  Macassar  blood  as  well  as  by  Bugis,  the  name  of 
Toradja,  like  that  of  Alfours,  responds  to  an  intellectual 
rather  than  to  an  ethnographical  difference. 

Bugis  and  Macassars,  despite  the  affinity  of  their 
languages  with  Malay,  are  physically  more  like  the 
Javanese,  except  that  they  are  better-looking  than  the 
latter,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  women.  They  are 
of  average  height,  well  built,  rather  dark  in  complexion, 
erect  and  graceful.  Both  are  excellent  sailors,  as  is  only 
natural  in  such  a country  : shut  in  by  the  sea  on  every 
side,  and  embracing  the  great  Gulfs  of  Macassar,  Boni, 
Toli,  and  Tomini,  which  themselves  are  again  cut  up 
into  thousands  of  lesser  bays  and  inlets,  creeks,  and 
natural  harbours,  so  that  the  smallest  kampong  has  the 
look  of  a port  or  fishing-village.  Fishing,  the  coast  trade, 
and  even  ocean  commerce  are  their  usual  occupations. 
The  Bugis  especially  are  famous  traders,  as  formerly 
they  were  formidable  pirates  ; they  are  expert  navigators, 
knowing  every  corner  of  the  Island  seas  over  a range  of 
astonishing  width.  They  do  not  hesitate  to  make  the 
voyage  to  Borneo  in  their  praus,  and  have  founded  many 
colonies  there  on  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts.  They 
monopolise  the  greater  part  of  the  trade  of  those  coasts, 
living  in  well-defended  kampongs,  united  in  a rigid 
solidarity.  They  allow  no  outside  interference  in  their 
affairs,  nor  do  they  take  kindly  to  the  foreigner’s  ideal 
of  assisting  them  to  govern  themselves.  Capable  of 
enduring  great  fatigye,  active  and  laborious,  and  deter- 
mined to  preserve  their  individuality  and  their  freedom, 
they  have  the  reputation  of  being  undisciplined  and 
vindictive  ; angered  by  an  insult  or  an  injustice  which 
they  cannot  directly  avenge,  they  too  readily  draw  the 


328 


JAVA 


krees  and  run  amok.  A proud  race,  refusing  to  serve 
the  Europeans  as  domestic  servants,  they  are  deplorable 
subordinates.  The  Dutch,  who  have  often  had  to  fight 
them  in  order  to  ensure  their  possession  of  Celebes,  and 
who  know  of  what  their  courage  and  love  of  indepen- 
dence are  capable,  enlist  them  gladly  for  service  in  the 
fleet,  where  they  are,  so  to  speak,  at  home  among  them- 
selves, or  at  most  the  comrades  of  their  close  relatives, 
the  Malays ; but  the  Government  has  almost  entirely 
ceased  to  enlist  them  in  the  army,  their  stubborn  tempera- 
ment making  them  almost  impossible  to  manage. 

It  is  only  just  to  add  that  a Dutch  colonist  who  lived 
for  many  years  among  them,  and  considered  that  he 
knew  them  thoroughly,  declared  that  they  were  extremely 
loyal  friends,  and  far  less  difficult  to  manage  than  has 
been  professed.  He  himself,  however,  could  not  possibly 
pretend  that  the  Bugis  have  any  immoderate  respect  for 
the  property  of  others,  or  that  they  regard  pilfering  and 
theft  as  other  than  a venial  offence.  In  Baba  and  Belu 
the  young  girls  marry  by  preference  young  men  who  are 
admitted  adepts  at  this  kind  of  “ sport,”  and  have  there- 
fore proved  their  dexterity  of  body  and  mind. 

Formerly  they  were  slightly  tinged  with  Hindu  in- 
fluences on  the  coasts,  but  to-day  they  are  mostly 
Islamites,  and  have  accepted  Islam  as  fervently  as  they 
resisted  it  for  some  centuries  before  its  introduction. 
They  are  not,  however,  patterns  of  orthodoxy.  In  many 
districts  they  still  revere  the  emblems  of  Shiva,  and  their 
ancient  animism  survives  in  the  worship,  possibly  totem- 
istic,  which  they  render  to  the  crocodile  and  to  certain 
kinds  of  eel.  The  Bugis  and  their  princes  attribute 
a kind  of  supernatural  power  to  the  royal  insignia,  which 
in  several  Bugis  Sultanates  are  of  a fetishistic  character. 

They  obey  a host  of  petty  princes,  whose  tyranny  or 
rapacity  are  to  some  extent  controlled  by  the  pride  of 
their  subjects.  The  Bugis  women  are  expert  weavers, 
embroiderers,  and  seamstresses,  and  can  often  read  and 
speak  Malay,  which  is  in  general  spoken  fluently  by  the 
men.  They  have,  however,  like  the  Macassars,  their  own 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  329 


language,  alphabet,  and  literature,  which  they  regard  with 
a certain  pride ; but  their  ruling  passion  is  for  cock- 
fighting  and  gambling.1 

The  Toradjas  of  the  mountains  and  the  pagan  and 
semi-savage  Alfours  of  the  centre  of  Celebes  are  mentally 
much  inferior  to  the  Bugis  and  Macassars.  Wretched 
enough  to  begin  with,  on  account  of  their  manner  of 
life,  they  reduce  their  race  still  further  by  the  atrocious 
custom  of  “ head-hunting  ” which  with  them,  as  with  the 
Dyaks,  is  a purely  ritual  ceremony,  being  described  by 
adat  in  certain  determined  circumstances,  such  as  the 
death  of  a chief,  &c.  The  Toradjas  of  Lake  Posso  are 
not  content  with  cutting  the  head,  but  also  drink  the 
blood  of  the  victim,  eating  a portion  of  his  flesh  and 
brains.  The  efforts  of  the  Dutch  to  suppress  this  custom 
wherever  their  influence  extends,  and  the  preaching  of 
the  Gospels  and  of  Islam,  the  former  being  well  received, 
allows  us  to  hope  that  this  horrible  custom  will  not 
survive  much  longer.2 

The  Alfours  of  the  Minahasa  are  far  more  highly 
civilised  than  the  Toradjas,  and  even  the  Bugis. 
Formerly,  it  is  true,  they  too  were  head-hunters  ; but 
to-day  they  are  a peaceable  folk,  honest,  and  energetic, 
and  nearly  all  are  Christians.  Fairly  tall,  good-looking, 
light-complexioned,  and  apparently  closely  related  to  the 
Polynesian-Maori  race,  they  agree  capitally  with  the  Dutch, 
dress  themselves  and  furnish  their  houses  as  far  as  possible 
like  Europeans,  and  although  they  have  so  far  found  it 
scarcely  possible  to  learn  the  Dutch  language  they  are 
gradually  replacing  their  local  idiom  by  Malay,  the  official 
language  of  the  Archipelago.  They  inhabit  the  most 
beautiful  and  most  cheerful-looking  country  in  Celebes. 

1 See  B.  F.  Matthes,  Eitiige  Eigen thiimlichkeiten  in  den  Festen  und 
Gewohnheiten  der  Makassaren  und  Buginesen  (Leyden,  1884,  8vo). 
Besides  this  and  many  other  monographs,  Matthes  has  published 
grammars,  dictionaries,  and  anthologies  of  the  Macassar  and  Bugi 
(Buginesen)  tongues  and  literatures. 

2 Dr.  N.  Adriani  has  made  a special  study  of  the  Toradjas,  and  his 
books  are  the  chief  authority  concerning  them. 


330 


JAVA 


In  the  administrative  department  of  Celebes  are  in- 
cluded the  small  Sangi  or  Sangin  Islands  in  the  north, 
which  lie  in  the  route  of  vessels  going  from  Celebes  to 
the  Philippines  ; the  long  island  called  Salejer  to  the 
south,  separated  from  the  Macassar  peninsula  only  by  a 
narrow  strait ; and  still  further  south,  Sumbawa,  which  is 
a much  larger  island,  entirely  volcanic,  geologically  and 
ethnographically  belonging  not  to  Celebes  but  to  Bali 
and  Lombok.  Sumbawa  is  remembered  for  the  terrible 
eruption  of  Timboro  (9,000  feet)  in  1815,  which  engulfed 
whole  villages  and  ruined  the  island. 

IV. 

The  Portuguese  settled  in  Macassar  in  1625.  In  1660 
the  Dutch  drove  them  out  and  replaced  them.  For  a 
long  time  they  were  confined  to  this  one  point ; it  is  only 
since  the  extension  of  the  Dutch  Colonial  Empire  during 
the  nineteenth  century  that  the  whole  island  has  been 
subjected  to  their  rule.  From  the  south-eastern  penin- 
sula they  worked  up  the  coast,  making  alliances  with  the 
numerous  Sultans  whose  dominions  they  reached,  sup- 
pressing them  or  winning  them  over  according  to  circum- 
stances, and  always  more  ready  to  take  the  second  course 
with  these  independent  seaboard  peoples.  In  other 
regions  the  Resident  or  Assistant  still  confines  himself  to 
collecting  a determined  tribute,  to  prohibiting  any  act  of 
administration  which  might  appear  to  be  directed  against 
Holland,  or  even  against  Europeans  in  general,  and  to 
controlling  or  suppressing  those  which  seem  contrary 
to  morality  or  humanity.  In  the  interior  the  Dutch  move 
slowly  and  prudently,  and  the  question  is  less  one  of 
raising  taxes  than  of  accustoming  the  Toradjas  to  the 
idea  of  the  foreign  master,  and  of  a civilisation  in  which 
no  one  collects  heads  in  order  to  influence  destiny.  It  is 
a curious  fact  that  in  Celebes — the  one  island  in  which 
the  Dutch  Government  must  go  slowly  and  softly  in  order 
to  go  forward  at  all — are  the  two  cities  which,  more  than 
any  in  the  Outer  Possessions,  recall  Holland  itself,  both 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  331 


in  the  outer  aspect  of  the  houses  and  their  internal 
arrangement.  These  cities  are  Macassar  and  Menado  : 
one  in  the  north,  the  other  in  the  south. 

V. 

Celebes  and  its  dependencies  form  two  distinct  ad- 
ministrative units  : (a)  the  Government  of  Celebes  and 
its  dependencies,  used  (6)  the  Residency  of  Menado. 

The  little  kingdoms  of  Banggai  and  Tembuku, 
although  geographically  part  of  Celebes,  are  included  in 
the  Residency  of  Ternate. 

The  Government  of  Celebes  and  its  dependencies, 
which  includes  all  the  southern  portion  of  the  island, 
Salejer  (Saleyer),  Sumbawa,  and  its  group,  has  for  capital 
Macassar  (26,145  inhabitants,  of  whom  1,060  are  Euro- 
peans, 4,672  Chinese,  and  141  Arabs).  The  commercial 
suburb  of  Vlaardingen,  overlooked  by  Fort  Rotterdam, 
consists  of  a vast,  interminable  street  with  European 
warehouses  and  offices,  Chinese  tokos,  and  numerous 
godowns  and  stores  built  in  the  eighteenth  century  in  the 
old  Dutch  style.  This  long,  throbbing  artery  is  over- 
flowing with  life  and  commercial  activity  ; men  surge  and 
hasten  along  it  like  corpuscles  in  the  blood.  On  the 
plein,  or  public  square,  are  the  barracks,  many  curious  old 
houses,  the  Residency,  the  Club,  and  some  fine  modern 
European  dwellings,  the  note  of  the  whole  being  one  of 
comfort  and  modern  hygiene. 

Near  the  port  live  the  natives  : Macassars,  Bugis,  and 
Malays  ; each  in  their  own  kampongs,  but  on  good  terms 
with  one  another. 

The  port  of  Macassar,  or  Makasser,  which  has  been  a 
free  port  since  1848,  is  increasing  in  importance  daily; 
and  is  threatening  Singapore  with  so  serious  a compe- 
tition that  the  latter  port  has  been  trying  to  obtain  a 
monopoly  of  copra  in  particular.  Macassar,  in  1902, 
exported  350,000  piculs.  At  this  rate  its  European  con- 
signments of  copra  will  soon  exceed  in  quantity,  and 
especially  in  value,  those  of  all  British  India.  If  we 


332 


JAVA 


compare  its  trade  during  the  period  1885-9  to  that  for  the 
period  1897-1900  we  find  an  increase  of  80  per  cent. 

Its  exports,  besides  copra,  consist  of  rattan,  oil  of 
cajeput,1  and  macassar  oil  (extracted  from  the  seeds  of 
the  badu).2 

The  carrying  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch, 
English,  Germans,  and  Australians. 

Maros  (1,493  inhabitants),  a district  capital,  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  a kingdom,  now  reduced  to  a 
rigid  dependency ; it  still  has  a nominal  Sultan.  Bantaeng 
or  Bonthain  (6,889  inhabitants)  owes  its  growing  import- 
ance to  its  safe  roadstead  and  to  the  magnificent  crops 
produced  in  the  neighbourhood  ; Sindjai  (3,779  inhabi- 
tants), on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Macassar  peninsula, 
possesses  similar  advantages  ; Takalar  (1,593  inhabitants) 
produces  first-class  sailors,  who  are  gladly  enrolled  in  the 
Dutch  fleet. 

Pampanua  and  Palopo,  on  the  east  coast,  which  the 
explorers  P.  and  F.  Sarasin  have  described  as  “ a little 
Venice  in  the  midst  of  the  mud,”  are  chiefly  of  political 
significance. 

Almost  everywhere  the  Dutch  Government  is  seeking 
to  create  new  economic  centres  on  which  it  keeps  a tight 
hand,  which  will  slowly  replace  the  ancient  “ courts  ” of 
Gowa,  Buton,  Tanette  (where  a woman  reigns  at  present), 
and  Wadju,  which  are  still  sullenly  hostile,  clinging 
obstinately  to  the  memories  of  their  past  importance. 

The  most  important  of  these  remains  of  states — the 

1 A volatile  oil  extracted  by  the  distillation  of  the  leaves  of  the  Mela- 
leuca cajeputi  Roxb.,  which  the  Malays  call  the  kayu  putih,  or  white 
tree,  on  account  of  the  white  bark  which  covers  it.  The  oil  is  liquid, 
volatile,  green,  transparent,  with  a strong  and  agreeable  odour.  To 
the  Chinese  and  Malays  it  is  a veritable  panacea  : they  give  it  for 
rheumatism,  gout,  paralysis,  epilepsy,  toothache,  &c.  [It  is  used 
internally  in  English  medicine  in  place  of  eucalyptus,  and  is  often 
useful  in  cases  of  gastralgia. — Trans.] 

2 Or  bado  in  Macassar  (Malay  kusambi,  Schleichera  trijuga  Willd.), 
a tree  of  the  family  of  sapinacice.  Once  used  by  Europeans  for  the 
hair,  and  still  so  employed  by  the  lower  classes,  it  is  the  basis  of 
various  cosmetics,  and  is  used  unmixed  in  the  East. 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  333 


kingdom  of  Gowa,  heritor  of  part  of  the  ancient  and 
well-known  kingdom  of  Boni — has  often  involved  the 
others  in  its  intrigues ; but  an  expedition  in  1904,  which 
performed  its  task  in  a serious  and  deliberate  fashion,  and 
was  ably  led,  has  to-day  practically  pacified  all  these 
futile  revolts  and  the  petty  acts  of  piracy  which  they 
covered.  A few  decorations,  diplomatically  distributed, 
and  which  are  at  once  an  embarrassment  and  a glory  to 
their  bearers,  have  finally  ensured  tranquillity  even  in  these 
nests  of  intrigue. 

The  district  of  Salejer,  or  Saleyer  (54,547  inhabitants) 
includes  the  whole  of  the  island  of  that  name  ; it  is  not 
only  the  most  populous,  but  one  of  the  most  laborious 
and  prosperous  districts  in  the  whole  Residency. 

The  Saleyerese,  close  relatives  of  the  Bugis  and  the 
Macassars,  are,  like  them,  Mahomedans,  and  excellent 
sailors  as  well  as  experienced  traders.  They  carry  on  a 
large  export  trade  in  dried  and  salt  fish,  beche  de  mer, 
copra,  Macassar  oil,  and  praus.  The  coco-palms,  which 
grow  in  a belt  round  the  whole  circumference  of  the 
island,  furnish  the  inhabitants  with  an  inexhaustible 
source  of  revenue. 

Bima  (1,569  inhabitants)  is  the  capital  of  the  district 
including  Sumbawa. 

The  inhabitants  of  Sumbawa  are  Mahomedans  on  the 
coast;  but  in  the  interior  they  practise  an  animism  full 
of  relics  of  Hinduism,  as  is  proved  by  the  name  devas , 
which  is  applied  to  all  their  divinities.  They  honour 
these  last  with  presents  of  flowers  and  fruits.  They  know 
nothing  of  human  sacrifices,  but  after  a death  they  burn 
or  bury  with  the  corpse  a certain  portion  of  the  dead  man’s 
fortune,  which  his  heirs  are  obliged  to  leave  him,  doubt- 
less to  assure  him  of  a living  in  the  next  world  ; and  if 
he  owns  any  livestock  their  throats  are  cut  over  his 
grave. 

Formerly  Sumbawa  was  divided  into  two  kingdoms, 
each  of  some  importance.  The  capital  of  the  western 
kingdom,  Sumbawa,  was  annihilated  by  the  explosion  of 
Timboro.  Bima,  on  the  other  hand,  still  exists ; its  ex- 


334 


JAVA 


cellent  harbour  and  its  admirable  ponies,  which  the  Arabs 
come  to  buy,  ensure  a real  future  for  it  so  soon  as  the 
timid  islanders  and  the  suspicious,  petty  Sultan  decide  to 
enter  more  openly  into  relations  with  the  Dutch,  who  at 
present  have  scarcely  penetrated  beyond  the  town  and  the 
coast. 

The  Residency  of  Menado,  in  the  north  of  Celebes,  is, 
perhaps,  more  densely  populated  and  more  wealthy  than 
that  of  “ Celebes  and  its  dependencies.” 

It  comprises  all  the  northern  portion  of  the  island,  and 
is  divided  into  two  districts  : that  of  the  Minahasa,  in  the 
north-eastern  portion  of  Celebes,  and  that  of  Gorontalo, 
together  with  the  Sangi  or  Sangir  Islands.  The  capital, 
Menado  (10,344  inhabitants,  of  whom  576  are  Europeans, 
2,784  Chinese,  and  300  Arabs),  is  built  upon  a site  that  is 
perhaps  unique  in  the  world.  The  town  is  built  around 
a spacious  and  beautiful  natural  harbour  ; close  at  the 
back  is  a magnificent  range  of  mountains.  The  Euro- 
pean quarter  consists  of  a few  vast  avenues,  planted  with 
magnificent  trees,  and  running  from  the  shore  towards 
the  mountains  ; the  houses,  even  the  finest,  are  of  wood 
and  thatched  with  atap,  so  that  they  have  not  the 
opulent  air  of  the  stone  mansions  of  Batavia  or  Surabaja, 
but  a cheerful  freshness,  which  is  the  prevailing  note 
of  the  city.  The  climate  of  Menado  is  extremely 
healthy,  and  the  heat  is  tempered  by  the  sea-breeze, 
so  that  the  nights  are  cool.  Epidemics  are  very  rare 
in  Menado. 

The  climate,  material  comfort,  and  long  contact  with 
Europeans,  have  resulted  in  the  cleanest  and  best  kept 
native  kampongs  in  the  entire  Archipelago  ; but  the  whole 
of  Minahasa  has  the  aspect  of  a flourishing  plantation. 
The  inhabitants  of  Menado  are  content  to  live  by  the 
sale  of  their  crops  ; all  retail  commerce  being  in  the  hands 
of  the  Chinese,  and  the  wholesale  export  and  import 
trade  in  the  hands  of  the  Europeans.  They  not  in- 
frequently intermarry  with  the  latter,  the  women  of  Mina- 
hasa, like  nearly  all  their  race,  being  handsome,  gentle, 
and  Christians  of  some  standing,  which  facilitates  these 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  335 


unions.  These  intermarriages  date  from  a comparatively 
remote  period,  for  there  is  a whole  quarter  in  the  town 
where  the  descendants  of  European  merchants,  who  were 
formerly  privileged  by  the  Company,  reside  ; although 
since  then  the  majority  of  them  have  been  subjected  to 
many  further  crossings. 

While  Macassar  owes  its  importance  to  its  character  of 
international  produce  market,  Menado  owes  its  good 
fortune  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  point  of  export  for  a 
region  admirably  fertile  in  coffee,  sugar-cane,  spices, 
dammar,  copra,  and  rattan.  Copra  seems  destined  to  be 
the  principal  source  of  the  wealth  of  these  islands,  which 
are  still  in  the  dawn  of  their  prosperity,  and  almost  devoid 
of  manufactures. 

In  1904  Menado  exported  16,104  tons  of  copra,  valued 
at  £201,300  ; about  a third  of  this  was  exported  to  Singa- 
pore, and  nearly  another  third  went  to  Marseilles,  and 
the  rest  of  France  took  3,892  tons;  the  remainder  was 
taken  by  Holland,  Italy,  and  Germany. 

Menado  still  exports  a certain  amount  of  native  gold  : 
1,219  lb.  in  1904.  In  the  same  year  the  city’s  imports 
attained  a value  of  -£241,658,  and  its  exports  a value  of 
£446,220. 

Tondano  (10,592  inhabitants,  of  whom  35  are  Euro- 
peans and  266  Chinese),  the  capital  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  to  the  north  of  the  beautiful  Lake 
of  Tondano,  at  a height  of  1,960  feet  above  the  sea. 
Formerly  Tondano  was  built  upon  piles  on  the  beach  of 
the  lake  : but  the  Dutch,  having  had  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty in  reducing  it,  judged  it  wise  to  move  the  town 
inland.  To-day  Tondano,  which  is  almost  entirely 
Christian,  is  surrounded  by  magnificent  coffee  plantations 
and  superb  forests.  It  is  now  so  completely  loyal  to  the 
Dutch  rule  that  it  was  judged  practicable  to  build  there 
the  school  for  the  sons  of  native  chiefs  ( School  voor  zonen 
van  Inlandsche  hoof  den),  in  which  the  sons  of  the  notables 
and  princes  of  Celebes  and  the  other  Outer  Possessions 
may  obtain  a general  and  professional  education  suited 
to  their  future  role.  The  inhabitants  of  Tondano  are 


336 


JAVA 


either  agriculturists  or  fishermen,  their  lake  being  full  of 
fish  of  all  species. 

Amurang  (2,945  inhabitants),  built  in  the  centre  of  a 
beautiful  bay  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Celebes,  and 
provided  with  a roadstead  which  affords  safe  anchorage 
in  all  winds  and  weathers,  is  extremely  picturesque  of 
aspect  amidst  its  clumps  of  coco-palms.  The  steamers 
of  the  Koningklijke  Paketvaart  Maatschappij  call  at 
Amurang,  and  since  it  has  had  less  to  fear  from  the 
incursions  of  pirates,  which  were  formerly  its  terror, 
despite  a fortress,  now  in  ruins,  the  town  has  com- 
menced to  revive. 

Gorontalo  (6,352  inhabitants,  of  whom  145  are  Euro- 
peans, 666  Chinese,  and  327  Arabs),  situated  at  the 
entrance  to  the  great  Gulf  of  Tomini,  and  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Boni  and  Bolango  Rivers,  is  protected  by 
Fort  Massan  and  a small  garrison.  It  is  the  seat  of  an 
Assistant-Residency.  Despite  its  indifferent  anchorage 
its  export  trade  is  increasing  daily,  its  trade  being 
chiefly  in  gums,  copra,  dammar,  rattan,  wax,  dye-woods, 
tortoise-shell,  and  various  sea-shells.  The  natives  are 
nearly  all  Christians,  and  thoroughly  docile.  Unhappily, 
the  population  increases  but  slowly,  on  account  of  the 
unhealthiness  of  the  site,  the  town  being  flooded  several 
months  in  the  year,  whence  constant  outbreaks  of 
fever. 

Paleleh,  although  a district  capital,  has  only  3,300 
inhabitants ; Taruna,  the  capital  of  the  Sangir  Islands,  has 
6,090,  nearly  all  fishermen  ; Donggala,  at  the  extremity 
of  the  long  and  narrow  bay  through  which  the  Palu 
River  flows  into  the  Macassar  Straits,  will  be  a town  of 
considerable  importance  when  the  isthmus,  here  18 
miles  in  width,  which  connects  the  northern  and  the 
southern  portions  of  Celebes  at  this  point,  is  pierced 
by  a canal  running  from  Palu  to  Parigi.  When 
this  new  route  enables  vessels  to  go  from  Macassar 
and  Boni  to  Menado  without  sailing  right  round  the 
huge  island,  both  praus  and  larger  vessels  will  flock  to 
Donggola. 


CELEBES  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  337 


VI. 

Celebes  has  all  things  needful  to  make  it  one  of  the 
most  fortunate  countries  in  the  Indies  : an  exceptionally 
fertile  soil  and  a rich  subsoil ; an  excellent  climate,  bays 
and  natural  harbours  as  equally  secure  and  numerous, 
and  a vigorous  and  intelligent  race. 

In  1907  the  Sumalatei  Mine  furnished  nearly  3 tons 
of  silver  (6,615  lb.)  and  1,170  lb.  of  gold.  At  Menado 
the  coffee  grown  by  Europeans  amounted  to  1,411  piculs 
and  the  coffee  grown  by  natives  (“  free  cultures  ” — that  is, 
of  their  own  initiative)  to  3,227  piculs  (1,680  cwt.  and 
3,860  cwt.,  or  75  tons  and  172  tons),  while  in  the  rest  of 
Celebes  29  piculs  were  grown  by  Europeans  and  23,469 
by  natives  (or  34  cwt.  and  28,180  cwt.).  Moreover,  this 
coffee,  which  created  a considerable  trade  in  Macassar, 
the  port  of  exportation  to  Java,  took  the  first  rank  in  the 
East  Indies  in  point  of  quality,  leaving  the  coffees  of  Java 
and  Sumatra  far  behind. 

Menado  also  produced  14,242  piculs  (17,090  cwt.)  of 
nutmegs  and  1,900  piculs  (2,280  cwt.)  of  mace,  while  the 
rest  of  Celebes  produced  only  5,445  piculs  (6,530  cwt.)  of 
nutmeg  and  1,176  piculs  (1,413  cwt.)  of  mace. 

Besides  these  results,  which  the  State  has  succeeded  in 
recording,  but  covered  by  no  statistics,  is  the  produce 
of  the  greater  part  of  Celebes.  The  smallest  village  in 
Celebes  drives  an  active  trade  in  copra,  rattan,  waxes 
and  gums  and  resins,  oils  and  hides,  and  (in  the  case 
of  the  coast  villages)  dry  fish  and  salt,  beche  de  mer,  and 
tortoise-shell. 

It  is  enough  to  recall  the  fact  that  Macassar,  which 
centralises  a large  proportion  of  this  trade,  though  not 
all,  exported  in  1907  16,030  piculs  of  coffee  (19,230  cwt.), 
76,119  piculs  of  rattan  (91,342  cwt.),  90,949  piculs  of 
copra  (109,140  cwt.) ; 2,291  piculs  of  pearl-shell  or  mother- 
of-pearl  (2,739  cwt.),  15,967  piculs  of  hides  (19,160  cwt.), 
7,013  piculs  of  nutmegs  (8,414  cwt.),  and  341,393  piculs 
of  copra  (409,670  cwt.) ; and  that  a rapid  increase  has 
been  visible  in  the  exportation  of  all  these  materials. 

23 


338 


JAVA 


For  Celebes  to  become  a really  rich  and  prosperous 
country  the  first  necessity  is  peace.  The  coasts  are 
already  practically  pacified  ; but  the  country  will  never 
be  completely  and  finally  at  peace  until  the  Toradjas 
of  the  interior  renounce  their  barbarous  customs  and 
commence  to  cultivate  the  soil.  The  greater  part  of 
Celebes  is  still  virgin  soil  ; peace  and  order,  once  estab- 
lished, would  enable  the  natives  to  break  it  up  for 
cultivation,  while  the  population,  decimated  by  head- 
hunting, would  have  an  opportunity  to  recuperate  itself. 
Such  recuperation  would  be  an  innovation,  and  a very 
necessary  one,  for  although  there  is  abundance  of  fertile 
soil  there  is  a serious  lack  of  labour.  There  are  good 
labourers  on  the  coast,  but  their  numbers  are  quite 
insufficient. 

Lastly,  Celebes  has  insufficient  means  of  communi- 
cation. There  is  a good  road  from  Macassar  to  Boni 
and  Maros  in  the  south  ; another  runs  northward  from 
Menado  to  Amurang  and  Tondano.  These  roads  are 
certainly  of  great  value,  but  they  are  as  nothing  com- 
pared with  the  area  of  Celebes.  There  remains  the  sea; 
but  the  windings  of  the  coast  make  the  coasting-trade 
a lengthy  and  at  some  seasons  a somewhat  risky  business. 
For  this  reason,  a canal  cut  through  the  isthmus  of  Palu 
would  be  of  inestimable  service. 

The  reclamation  and  civilisation  of  Celebes  will  be  a 
stupendous  task,  but  one  that  may  end  in  magnificent 
results.  Holland  has  already  applied  herself  vigorously 
to  her  programme  of  development. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA 

I.  Physical  geography  of  the  Moluccas. — II.  Their  inhabitants. — 
III.  The  Dutch  in  the  Moluccas. — IV.  Administrative  divisions  : 
(a)  The  Residency  of  Ternate  and  dependencies;  ( b ) The  Resi- 
dency of  Amboin. — V.  The  Residency  of  the  West  of  New 
Guinea. — VI.  The  economic  future  of  the  Moluccas. 


I. 

On  the  west  the  Moluccas  1 are  divided  from  Celebes  by 
the  Sea  of  Celebes.  Eastward  a mass  of  islands  and 
islets,  some  of  which  are  inhabited,  connects  them  with 
New  Guinea.  The  Philippine  Sea  washes  them  on  the 
north,  and  the  Sea  of  Banda  on  the  south,  while  the  Sea 
of  Seram  divides  them  into  two  distinct  groups,  of  which 
the  Dutch  Government  has  made  two  Residencies.  The 
Northern  Moluccas  form  the  “ Residency  of  Ternate  and 
its  dependencies,”  and  the  Southern  Moluccas  form  the 
“ Residency  of  Amboin.” 

The  Northern  Moluccas,  with  their  dependencies,  have 
a total  area  of  some  176,100  square  miles,  and  a popu- 
lation of  108,900  inhabitants.  The  Southern  Moluccas, 
with  an  area  of  19,810  square  miles,  have  a population 
of  299,000. 

1 Little  is  known  as  to  the  origin  of  the  name  “ Moluccas."  The 
Portuguese  called  these  islands  the  Maluco  Islands,  believing Maluco 
to  be  the  name  of  their  king  as  well.  As  in  Arabic — the  language 
of  Islam,  which  had  reached  the  Moluccas — the  word  for  king  is 
melek  (plural  muluk),  and  as  each  island  had  a king,  old  writers 
spoke  of  the  Moluccas  as  “the  Islands  of  the  Kings.” 

339 


340 


JAVA 


Both  groups  are  essentially  volcanic  in  character.  The 
volcanoes  of  the  northern  group  are  far  more  active  than 
those  of  the  southern;  the  magnificent  Mount  Ter nate, 
sung  by  the  Portuguese  poet  Camoens,  being  that  most 
subject  to  eruptions.  The  Moluccas  are  the  home  of 
continual  shakings  and  tremblings  of  the  earth  ; the  towns 
and  villages  are  often  littered  with  debris,  in  the  midst 
of  which  the  inhabitants  are  philosophically  building  new 
houses,  neither  the  old  buildings  nor  the  new  being 
particularly  costly.  The  highest  volcano  in  the  Moluccas 
is  on  the  little  island  ofTidore;  its  summit  attains  an 
altitude  of  5,600  feet. 

In  islands  of  such  limited  area  and  irregular  outline 
the  rivers  are  naturally  hardly  worthy  of  notice.  They 
have  neither  the  width  nor  the  length  nor  the  abundance 
of  the  rivers  of  Java,  Borneo,  or  Celebes,  as,  apart  from 
their  shortness,  the  rains  are  not  heavy  ; yet  the  streams 
of  the  Moluccas,  especially  those  of  the  southern  group, 
are  at  all  events  numerous  enough,  and  rich  enough  in 
rapids,  falls,  and  little  lakes  to  fertilise  a soil  already  rich 
in  volcanic  humus,  and  to  create  landscapes  of  a wild  and 
virgin  beauty. 

The  climate  of  the  Moluccas  is  much  drier  than  that 
of  Borneo ; drier  even  than  that  of  Celebes.  In  its 
freedom  of  perceptible  moisture  it  recalls  the  climate 
of  Australia  ; but  this  dry  heat,  tempered  by  the  sea- 
breeze,  renders  the  islands  extremely  healthy. 

The  flora,  which  emphasises  the  peculiarity  of  tropical 
vegetation,  in  that  it  is  far  richer  in  foliage  than  in 
flowers,  although  the  evidence  of  the  hothouse  often 
leads  the  inhabitant  of  the  temperate  zones  to  imagine 
the  contrary,  is,  on  the  whole,  more  characteristic  of 
Australia  than  of  India ; but  the  palm,  the  nutmeg,  and 
the  clove  abound. 

The  fauna,  like  the  flora,  is  reminiscent  of  Australia. 
The  panther,  the  tiger,  and  the  elephant  are  absent ; but 
a number  of  marsupials  occur.  The  glory  of  the  fauna 
resides  in  the  multitude  of  birds  and  butterflies,  decked 
in  the  most  brilliant  of  colours,  which  seem  to  vie 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA  341 


with  one  another  to  make  one  forget  the  scarcity  of 
flowers. 

II. 

Although  the  total  population  of  the  Moluccas 1 is  small, 
it  is  curiously  mixed  in  character,  owing  to  the  isolation 
of  its  several  divisions  and  the  reputation  of  wealth  which 
the  islands  have  enjoyed  from  of  old.  The  natives, 
obviously  of  the  Malayo-Polynesian  race,  and  forming 
a transitional  phase  between  the  Indonesians  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  and  Celebes  and  the  Papuans  of  New 
Guinea,  have  received  the  general  denomination  of 
Alfours,  although  they  are  not  identical  with  the  Alfours 
of  Celebes.  To  say  that  a tribe  of  the  Moluccas  are 
Alfours  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  they  are  semi-savages. 

These  semi-savages  present  many  points  of  difference, 
accordingly  as  they  are  dwellers  on  the  coast  or  in  the 
interior.  In  the  Moluccas  of  the  northern  group  many 
Malay  and  Bugis  emigrants  have  settled  on  the  coast, 
notably  on  Ternate  and  Tidore.  These  have  inter- 
married with  the  women  of  the  Alfours,  and  have 
founded  a Mahomedan  race  of  superior  civilisation, 
which  is  found  throughout  all  the  lesser  Moluccas,  in 
Batjan  and  Kajoa,  and  on  the  southern  coast  of  Halma- 
hera.  Beside  these  we  must  place  the  “ Orang  Serani," 
who  profess  a firm  but  much  adulterated  Christianity, 
and  assert  that  they  are  the  descendants  of  the  Portuguese, 
the  former  masters  of  the  country.  These  descendants 
of  the  “whites  ” are  much  darker  of  skin  than  the  Malays 
or  the  Alfours;2  but  they  speak  a Malay  dialect  mixed 
with  Portuguese  words,  pride  themselves  on  a certain 
degree  of  civilisation,  and,  in  order  to  mark  their  noble 
descent,  always  wear  the  black  clothes  and  insignia  re- 

1 Concerning  the  Moluccas,  see  K.  Martin’s  Reisen  in  den  Moluk- 
ken,  in  Ambon,  den  Uliassern,  Seran  und  Burn : (a)  Eine  Schilderung 
von  Land  und  Leuten;  (b)  Geologischer  Theil  (Leyden,  1894-1903, 
4 vols.,  large  8vo). 

2 We  observe  the  same  phenomenon  in  many  parts  of  the  world  ; 
for  instance,  among  the  Portuguese  half-breeds  of  Cambodia,  and  in 
the  Malacca  peninsula. 


342 


JAVA 


served  for  chiefs.  This  does  not  prevent  the  majority 
of  them  from  living  idle  and  poverty-stricken  lives. 

It  is  only  in  the  central  parts  of  the  islands — and 
especially  in  the  northern  part  of  Halmahera — that  we 
find  the  true  Alfours,  who  have  remained  animists,  and 
whose  civilisation  is  rudimentary.  Nevertheless,  their 
manners  and  morals  are  said  to  be  pure  and  gentle ; they 
are  innocent  of  the  barbarous  rite  of  head-hunting,  of 
the  custom  of  enslavement  in  payment  of  debt  (or  at  the 
most  the  slavery  is  only  temporary,  being  limited  to  a 
term  of  ten  years,  and  the  debtor  does  not  leave  his 
own  village,  where,  considering  the  solidarity  of  communal 
village  life,  it  is  not  likely  that  his  lot  can  be  very  hard). 

Marriage  is  exogamic  and  patriarchal ; polygamy  does 
not  exist ; nor  may  wives  and  daughters  be  sold  to  pay 
the  debts  of  the  husband,  although  the  latter  may 
become  a slave  to  pay  those  of  his  wife. 

The  Alfours  of  Halmahera  chiefly  worship  the  spirits 
of  evil,  whom  they  seek  to  conciliate  by  offerings  ; and 
also  the  souls  of  their  ancestors,  whose  survival  they  see 
in  all  things.  They  have  a custom  of  slightly  chipping 
or  cracking  any  newly  bought  pots  or  vessels,  which  is 
probably  observed  in  honour  of  their  ancestors,  with  the 
idea  of  giving  them  their  share. 

We  find,  among  the  Alfours,  even  among  those  of  the 
coast,  who  are  converts  to  Islam,  a singular  ordeal, 
which  is  also  practised  by  the  Bahnars  of  Indo-China, 
in  the  same  manner  and  in  the  same  circumstances. 
When  an  Alfour  is  accused  of  any  crime  or  offence — the 
offence  is  usually  that  of  having  “sent  a doom,"  of 
having  meddled  with  fate,  and  thus  of  having  killed  a 
fellow-villager — he  may  obtain  an  acquittal  if  he  protest 
his  innocence  while  drinking  “the  water  of  the  sword";1 

1 The  Kings  of  Cambodia  make  all  their  officials  drink  “ the 
water  of  oaths  ’’  upon  assuming  office,  and  also  on  their  birthdays. 
This  is  consecrated  water  into  which  the  king’s  arms  have  been 
dipped.  In  theory  the  perjured  functionary  should  die  as  the  result 
of  the  draught  if  he  does  not  intend  to  keep  his  promise  of  fidelity 
as  he  drinks. 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA  343 


— that  is,  water  contained  in  a bowl  in  which  two  swords 
have  been  crossed,  a bullet  having  been  thrown  in  first. 
In  the  event  of  perjury  the  offender  will  surely  die. 

The  Alfours  of  the  Southern  Moluccas  resemble  the 
Papuans  of  New  Guinea  still  more  strongly  than  those 
of  the  northern  group.  Between  the  Alfours  of  Ceram 
and  Amboin  there  are  several  strongly  marked  points  of 
difference. 

Amboin  (Ambon),  owing  to  the  fact  that  Europeans 
and  Malays  have  been  established  there  for  centuries 
on  account  of  its  trade  in  spices,  is  notable  for  a much 
higher  standard  of  civilisation  and  comfort  than  that 
of  the  other  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  In  the  south  of 
the  island  Christianity  is  the  prevalent  religion  ; but  the 
natives  of  the  northern  portion,  who  have  not  come 
under  its  influence,  have  embraced  Islam. 

In  Ceram  the  Alfours  of  the  seaboard  are  mostly 
Mahomedans,  except  those  who  live  on  that  part  of  the 
island  which  faces  Amboin,  which  is  inhabited  by  the 
Orang  Seratii.  These  natives,  who  were  converted  to 
Catholicism  by  the  Portuguese,  only  to  be  hustled  into 
Protestantism  by  the  Dutch,  continue  to  mingle  the  two 
forms  of  religion  with  a naive  and  fervent  eclecticism,  and 
are  especially  proud  of  being  Christians  and  “ sons  of 
whites.”  In  the  interior  of  the  island  the  Alfours  have 
remained  barbarians,  and  are  warlike  and  ferocious. 

They  do  homage  to  spirits  both  good  and  evil,  but 
especially  to  the  latter  ; and  they  believe  in  the  existence 
of  a creative  spirit,  with  whom  they  do  not  greatly  con- 
cern themselves.  Their  priests  are  of  the  medicine-man 
type  ; their  religion  consists  in  a number  of  superstitious 
practices,  very  often  of  a restrictive  kind  ; it  includes 
innumerable  “ taboos,”  and  also  sacrifices  and  offerings 
which  are  often  entirely  out  of  proportion  to  the  modest 
possessions  of  the  suppliant.  The  political  power  con- 
ceded to  a few  of  the  hereditary  chiefs  is  inconsider- 
able. 

Marriage,  which  is  rigorously  exogamic,  and  in  which 
the  woman  is  definitely  adopted  by  the  clan  of  her 


344 


JAVA 


husband,  necessitates  the  purchase  of  the  wife,  whose 
children  belong  to  the  clan  and  also  to  the  husband.  A 
widow  should,  if  possible,  remarry  with  a friend  of  the 
deceased,  but  at  all  events  within  the  clan.  Her  fate  is 
a happy  one,  compared  with  the  general  fate  of  other 
women  of  the  Archipelago.  Not  only  is  she  greatly 
respected  by  her  husband ; she  is  saved  the  heavy 
physical  labour  which  elsewhere  causes  barrenness  and 
premature  old  age.  Although  they  hold  quarrels,  slavery, 
and  usury  in  abomination,  the  Alfours  of  central  Ceram 
must  by  no  means  be  regarded  as  lambs  : as  witness  the 
existence  of  head-hunting  and  of  the  kakelian.  The 
kakehan  is  a secret  society  which  groups  the  entire  male 
population  of  Ceram  about  three  chiefs,  whose  prescrip- 
tions they  must  blindly  obey  on  pain  of  death.  Its 
object  is  the  maintenance  of  old  usages  against  the 
influence  of  foreigners,  and  of  Europeans  in  particular; 
and  its  members  must  help  and  succour  one  another  at 
all  times,  but  especially  in  time  of  war.  The  “ cutting 
of  heads  ” as  trophies  is  an  act  greatly  admired  by 
members  of  the  league.  All  affairs  concerning  religion 
and  the  social  organism  are  discussed  by  the  members  of 
the  league  met  in  general  assembly,  the  three  chiefs  pre- 
siding. Such  meetings  are  held  in  the  communal  house 
of  the  league,  which  no  woman  may  enter.  There  also 
they  hold  their  banquets,  and  perform  the  ceremonial 
tattooing  of  warriors. 

This  league,  as  the  agent  of  barbarism  and  revolt 
against  the  power  of  the  Dutch,  is  naturally  most  care- 
fully watched  by  the  Dutch  Government.1 

In  Buru,  on  the  contrary,  the  Alfours  are  extremely 
docile.  Those  on  the  coast  have  mixed  with  the  Malays ; 
those  of  the  interior  are  said  to  entertain  a terror  and  a 
religious  horror  of  the  sea  ; in  their  beautiful  teak  forests 
and  their  fertile  plains  they  live  a peaceful,  agricultural 
life,  cultivating  their  earth-nuts  and  sago-palms,  and 
extracting  oil  of  cajeput.  They  have  a high  reputation 
for  loyalty  and  industry. 

1 See  T.  J.  Bezemer,  Door  I nderlandscli  Oost-Indie,  p.  600. 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA  345 


Banka,  which  suffered  so  terribly  of  old  from  Dutch 
brutality,  still  owes  to  Holland  the  most  defective  side  of 
its  social  organisation.  It  retains  even  to  this  day  a 
group  of  perkeniers,1  the  descendants,  after  a period 
of  nearly  three  hundred  years,  of  those  to  whom  the 
brutal  Jan  Coen  distributed  extensive  holdings  after 
having  caused  or  permitted  the  massacre  of  numbers  of 
inoffensive  natives. 

Their  veins,  at  this  late  period,  largely  filled  with 
native  blood  as  the  result  of  continual  “ crossing,”  the 
perkeniers  form  a kind  of  superior  caste,  which  holds 
the  native  in  contempt,  and  in  matters  of  precedence 
ranks  immediately  below  the  island’s  few  European 
officials.  Next  to  them  come  the  Christian  natives,  who 
were  always  treated  as  equals  by  the  Company,  and 
lastly,  the  common  people ; who,  according  to  all 
observers,  are  far  superior  in  morality,  industrious  energy 
and  morality  to  the  first  two  classes. 

III. 

The  Southern  Moluccas,  being  “spice  islands”  par 
excellence,  were  one  of  the  most  fruitful  conquests  of 
Portugal  in  the  sixteenth  century  ; and  one  of  her  pos- 
sessions which  Holland  sought  by  all  means  in  her 
power  to  wrest  from  the  Portuguese  at  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  She  succeeded,  and  gained  a 
source  of  wealth  that  appeared  inexhaustible.  For  more 
than  a century  the  spices  of  the  Southern  Moluccas 
yielded  her  a profit  of  300  per  cent. 

The  wealth  of  these  islands  was  also  the  cause  of  some 
odious  and  abominable  actions,  such  as  are  happily  not 
common  in  her  colonial  history.  To  ensure  that  the 
superabundance  of  spice-bearing  trees  in  Banda  and 

1 From  the  Dutch  perkere  = “ parcels,  lots  of  land.”  These  lots 
were  distributed  for  the  first  time  in  1627  by  Jan  Coen  to  various 
persons  (perkeniers ),  who  were  required  to  plant  them  with 
nutmeg-trees,  cultivate  them,  and  sell  the  produce  to  the  Company 
at  a rate  fixed  by  the  latter. 


346 


JAVA 


Amboin  should  not  lower  the  prices,  and  in  order  to 
ensure  itself  in  a systematic  manner  of  the  monopoly, 
the  Company  laid  waste  all  the  plantations  of  Banda  and 
a portion  of  those  of  Amboin,  forbidding  the  natives 
upon  pain  of  death  to  preserve  or  replant  them  ; and  the 
death-penalty  was  declared  also  against  any  native  who 
should  be  found  attempting  to  sell  the  smallest  parcel  of 
spices  to  any  foreign  trader,  who  would  himself  be  killed 
if  captured.  Moreover,  agents  extirpateurs — literally  ex- 
tirpating agents — were  maintained  in  both  islands,  for 
the  purpose  of  watching  the  plantations  and  of  limiting 
them  in  the  desired  degree.  The  natives,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  constrained  to  devote  their  time  to  cultivat- 
ing and  gathering  the  spices  for  the  Company's  benefit, 
with  the  result  that  they  had  no  leisure  to  think  of  their 
own  subsistence,  and  suffered  from  famine  amidst  the 
wealth  they  were  producing  for  others  ; whence  arose 
natural  deceptions,  revolts  cruelly  suppressed,  and  the 
rapid  depopulation  of  Banda  and  Amboin.  Fortunately 
for  these  unhappy  folk  the  spice  trade  was  ruined  by 
foreign  competition,  and  the  Company  failed.  Finally 
a more  equitable  government  was  established,  while 
Christianity  brought  them  face  to  face  with  a less  repug- 
nant aspect  of  Western  civilisation. 

It  is  by  means  of  Christianity  that  the  greater  part  of 
these  quiet  and  amiable  populations  have  become  the  most 
dutiful  and  even  (as  in  Amboin,  for  instance)  the  most 
loyal  and  affectionate  subjects  of  the  Dutch  Government. 

Installed  in  Ternate  in  1607,  the  Dutch  had  to  proceed 
with  greater  circumspection  in  the  Northern  than  in  the 
Southern  Moluccas,  on  account  of  the  power  of  the 
Sultan  of  Ternate.  Moreover,  the  inferior  fertility  of 
these  islands  could  not  ensure  them  the  same  enormous 
profits  as  those  derived  from  the  southern  group.  In 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  the  Sultanate  of 
Ternate  won  peculiar  renown  in  Europe,  and  became 
enormously  wealthy,  by  the  sale  of  spices  and  by  piracy. 
Holland  was  at  first  unable  to  benefit  by  the  one,  and 
had  always  a prime  interest  in  suppressing  the  other. 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA  347 


IV. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  Moluccas  are  now 
divided  into  two  Residencies. 

The  Northern  Moluccas,  to  which  we  must  add  the 
Obi,  and  Sula,  and  Banggai  Islands,  the  numerous 
groups  between  Halmahera  and  Dutch  New  Guinea,  and 
the  western  portion  of  New  Guinea  itself,  all  go  to  form 
the  Residency  of  Ternate  and  its  dependencies  ( Ternate 
en  Onderhoorigheden).  Its  capital  is  Ternate,  and  it  in- 
cludes the  districts  of  Ternate,  Labuha,  Sanana,  Galela, 
Banggai,  Sakita,  Manokuari,  and  Fakfak. 

Ternate  (Tarnati),  the  capital  of  the  whole  Residency 
and  of  the  district  of  the  same  name,  a town  of  3,616 
inhabitants,  of  whom  394  are  Europeans,  721  Chinese, 
and  286  Arabs,  is  only  the  shadow  of  what  it  has  been. 
It  consists  of  the  town  proper,  with  its  three  wide 
parallel  streets,  connected  by  lanes  which  run  between 
the  kampongs  of  the  Chinese,  the  Macassars,  and  the 
Christian  natives,  who  as  such  are  regarded  as  freemen 
and  burghers  ( Inlandsche  burgers).  In  these  three  streets 
are  the  public  buildings  ; the  Residency,  the  prison,  the 
school,  the  church,  and  the  Government  stores  and 
warehouses,  all  under  the  shadow  of  Fort  Orange 
(Oranje),  which  was  built  in  1717,  and  still  contains  a 
small  garrison. 

Next  to  the  Macassar  quarter  are  the  lands  of  the 
Sultan,  on  which  all  the  wealthy  and  notable  natives  and 
the  princes  are  required  to  dwell.  The  palace  itself  is 
built  on  the  top  of  a little  hill ; it  is  a stone  building, 
very  large  and  handsome,  provided  with  a verandah 
from  which  one  obtains  a splendid  view  of  the  sea. 
A wide  lawn  precedes  the  flight  of  thirty-four  steps 
which  lead  up  to  the  palace,  which  is  a remark- 
ably fine  building  as  compared  with  the  present 
decadence  of  Ternate.  The  sovereign  has  his  own 
jetty  and  landing-stage,  far  removed  from  the  common 
herd ; but  the  new  roadstead,  which  is  so  disposed 
as  to  avoid  the  fate  of  the  old,  which  became 


348 


JAVA 


blocked  with  sand,  and  formerly  stretched  as  far  as  Fort 
Orange,  has  its  entrance  in  front  of  the  Residency. 
Despite  its  past,  its  healthy  climate,  and  its  proximity  to 
Celebes  and  the  Philippines,  Ternate  is  visibly  decaying  ; 
it  lives  entirely  by  a purely  local  trade,  principally  with 
New  Guinea.  When  the  Americans  are  firmly  and 
permanently  established  in  the  southern  Philippines  it 
is  possible  that  a trade  will  spring  up  between  these 
islands  and  the  Moluccas,  and  awaken  the  port  to 
renewed  activity. 

The  district  capitals  seem  to  share  in  the  somnolence 
of  Ternate.  Labuka  (7,529  inhabitants)  in  the  island  of 
Batjan,  despite  the  presence  of  a fort — Fort  Barneveldt 
— a Protestant  church,  a native  school,  and  a poverty- 
stricken  Sultan,  is  only  a handful  of  fishermen’s  kam- 
pongs.  The  only  kampong  which  exhibits  any  activity 
or  betrays  any  wealth  is  of  course  that  of  the  Chinese.1 

Tidore  (Tidori)  is  a Sultanate  dependent  on  the 
Residency  of  Ternate,  which  includes  a number  of  small 
islands — Matara,  Marei,  Filonga,  Gebe,  the  Fau  and  Gag 
Islands,  and  the  western  portion  of  New  Guinea  as  far 
as  longitude  1410  east  of  Paris. 

Sanana,  capital  of  the  Sula  Islands,2  between  Ternate 
and  the  Gulf  of  Tolo,  is  barely  alive,  despite  a fine 
and  secure  roadstead  off  the  island  of  Sulabesi.  Galela, 
in  the  large  but  almost  desert  island  of  Halmahera  or 
Gilolo,3  has  only  198  inhabitants,  nearly  all  Mahomedans, 
who  live  partly  on  fish,  partly  on  rice,  sago,  maize,  &c. 

Banggai  (Bangaai),  containing  1,500  inhabitants,  the 
capital  of  the  islands  of  that  name,  all  of  which  are 

1 Concerning  the  Residency  of  Ternate  see  F.  S.  A.  de  Clercq, 
Bijdragen  tot  de  kennis  der  residentie  Ternate  (Leyden,  1890,  8vo). 

2 The  Sula  Islands  consist  of  a group  of  three  large  and  a number 
of  small  islands  belonging  to  the  Sultanate  of  Ternate.  The  three 
large  islands  are  Taliabu,  Mangoli  and  Sulabesi.  Lifumatola  is  the 
most  notable  of  the  smaller  islands  ; numbers  of  swallows’  nests 
are  found  there,  which  are  gathered  for  the  Sultan. 

3 Or  Djilolo,  Djailolo.  Gilolo  is  really  the  district  of  the  western 
coast  of  the  northern  peninsula  of  the  island  of  Halmahera,  but  the 
name  has  been  wrongly  extended  to  the  entire  island. 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA  349 


inhabited,  which  is  no  slight  merit  in  these  seas  of  desert 
islands,  and  are  dependent  upon  the  Sultan  of  Ternate  ; 
Banggai,  with  its  muddy  paths,  and  its  wretched  wooden 
houses,  is  a poor  village  of  fishermen  and  salt-workers. 
A dilapidated  mosque  and  a rajah  worthy  of  the  mosque 
are  not  sufficient  to  increase  its  prestige.  Sakita  or 
Tobungku,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Celebes,  administered 
by  a rajah  and  several  chiefs,  is  the  capital  of  a little 
State  which  has  for  a long  time  been  a dependency  of 
Ternate;  Manokuari  (119  inhabitants),  and  Fakfaks 
(693  inhabitants),  both  district  capitals  of  Western  New 
Guinea,  are  principally  of  ethnographical  and  political 
interest ; their  economic  value  is  merely  rudimentary. 

V. 

The  Residency  of  Amboin  ( residentie  Amboina),  which 
embraces  the  Moluccas  of  the  South  and  their  depen- 
dencies, is  very  much  wealthier  than  that  of  Ternate  and 
has  very  different  prospects.  It  includes  the  following 
islands  : Amboina,1  Oma  (Haruku),  Honimoa  (Saparua), 
Nusa  Laut,  Buru,  Manipa,  Kelang,  Boano,  Ambelan, 
Ceram,  the  Banda  group,  the  Aru,  Kei,  and  Tenimber 
Islands,  Sera,  Bubar,  Leti,  Moa,  Leikor,  Kisar,  Roma, 
Damar,  Wetar,  &c. 

Amboin  (Ambon),  the  capital  of  the  Residency  and 
of  the  island  of  Amboin,2  contains  8,328  inhabitants, 
of  whom  879  are  Europeans,  539  Chinese,  and  277 
Arabs.  The  town  still  feels  the  benefit  of  the  general 
prosperity  which  the  spice  plantations  formerly  brought 

1 Amboina,  the  name  given  to  the  island  by  the  Portuguese,  is 
undoubtedly  derived  through  the  Malay  embon  ( embun , ambuti),  a 
dew  or  mist,  from  the  native  name  Nasa  Yapoono,  “ Isle  of  Mists.” 
The  Dutch  have  retained  the  form  Amboina  as  applying  to  the 
Residency,  while  they  habitually  use  the  form  Ambon  in  speaking 
of  the  island  and  its  capital.  In  Malay  the  island  is  known  as 
Pulau  Embun. 

a Concerning  the  mineral  wealth  of  Amboin  see  R.  D.  M. 
Verbeek’s  Descriptive  giologique  de  Vile  d’ Ambon  (Batavia,  1905, 
8vo,  illustr.,  separate  plates  and  atlas). 


350 


JAVA 


to  all ; in  some  quarters  the  houses  of  the  natives,  and 
especially  those  of  the  chiefs,  are  as  spacious  and  as  well 
furnished  and  decorated  as  ever,  and  the  garments  of 
both  men  and  women,  and  their  numerous  trinkets  of 
gold  and  silver,  are  visible  proofs  of  an  easy  and  com- 
fortable existence. 

Christianity,  which  is  very  general,  has  given  the 
Amboinese  a degree  of  civilisation  greatly  superior  to 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  Moluccas.  The  climate  is  very 
healthy  ; the  town,  situated  between  Wai  Tomo  and  Wai 
Gadjah,  is  of  regular  formation,  clean,  and  a delight  to 
the  eyes.  It  is  overlooked  by  the  Nieuw-Victoria  fort, 
which  is  built  on  the  shore,  and  which  protects  the 
barracks  and  a considerable  garrison  ; for  Amboin  is 
the  seat  of  the  military  command  of  the  Moluccas. 
The  houses  and  offices  of  the  Europeans  are  to  the 
east  and  south  of  the  port ; near  by  is  a fine  Residency, 
the  club,  the  church,  the  orphan  asylum,  the  schools, 
and  the  prison.  The  native  kampongs  are  distributed 
with  less  regularity,  being  scattered  in  almost  all  direc- 
tions, although  most  are  built  fronting  on  the  river. 
Amboin  has  been  a free  port  since  1854. 

Saparua  (2,354  inhabitants,  of  whom  299  are  Europeans) 
situated  on  one  of  the  islands  in  the  Banda  Sea,  is  a busy 
port  protected  by  a small  garrison,  for  in  1817  it  was  the 
theatre  of  a desperate  and  bloody  revolt  against  the 
Dutch  power.  Since  then  Saparua  has  been  completely 
pacified,  and  appears  to  be  particularly  loyal  to  Holland. 
Kajuli  (526  inhabitants),  and  Tifu  or  Masaretei  (543 
inhabitants)  are  two  district  capitals  on  the  island  of 
Buru.  Banda-Neira  (4,130  inhabitants,  of  whom  677 
are  European  and  306  Arab — there  are  only  a few 
Chinese),  whose  name  wakes  the  memory  of  the  Portu- 
guese, and  the  capital  of  the  Banda  group,  is  built  on 
a site  of  marvellous  beauty,  which  is  often  enhanced 
by  the  curious  phenomenon  of  the  Sea  of  Milk,  a tract 
of  water  some  miles  from  the  shore,  which  at  certain 
seasons  covers  the  waves  with  a milk-white  phosphor- 
esence,  due  to  the  presence  of  myriads  of  tiny  organisms. 


THE  MOLUCCAS  AND  NEW  GUINEA  351 


Banda  was  the  first  of  the  Moluccas  to  have  dealings 
with  the  Dutch  (in  1599)  ; and  although  it  suffered 
greatly  in  consequence,  it  seems  to  have  forgotten  the 
past  to-day. 

Wahaai  or  Orang  (2,850  inhabitants)  in  the  island  of 
Ceram  or  Serang  is  situated  to  the  east  of  the  Bay  of 
Sawai.  It  possesses  a small  redoubt  and  a garrison. 
Tual  (802  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  the  Ewab  or  Kei 
Islands,  is  in  a state  of  gradual  development,  thanks  to 
the  exportation,  by  Europeans,  of  building  timber  and 
ornamental  hardwoods. 

It  has  seemed  best  to  attach  the  Residency  of  the 
South  of  New  Guinea  (Zuid-Nieuw-  Guinea)  to  the 
Moluccas.  The  capital  is  Merauke  (487  inhabitants) ; 
a place  of  no  interest  save  to  the  ethnologist. 

VI. 

To  sum  up  : except  for  spices  and  the  plumage  of 
the  birds,1  which  are  exported  solely  to  Europe,  the 
latter  being  in  great  demand  on  the  French  market  in 
particular,  and  the  subject  of  a long-established  trade, 
the  Moluccas  have  hitherto  lived  upon  purely  local 
resources  : fish,  swallows’  nests,  trepang,  tortoise-shell, 
various  kinds  of  hardwood,  sago,  &c.  Is  the  trade  of 
these  islands  capable  of  expansion,  and  is  it  possible  to 
improve  the  economic  conditions  of  these  islands  ? 
The  reply  should  perhaps  be  different,  accordingly  as 
we  consider  the  northern  or  the  southern  group. 

The  Northern  Moluccas,  sparsely  populated  and  insuffi- 
ciently cultivated,  have  no  prospects  worth  mentioning, 
except  that  once  an  active  and  regular  trade  has  been 
built  up  between  Celebes  and  the  pacified  Philippines 
they  may  serve  as  a point  of  call,  and  may  themselves 
take  part  in  that  trade.  The  Southern  Moluccas,  on 
the  contrary,  being  better  organised,  more  densely 

1 SeeT.  Forest,  senr. : Contributions  ornithologiques  de  la  Nouvelle- 
Guinee  ou  Paponasie  & Tindustrie  de  la  mode  in  the  Revue  des  Sciences 
naturelles  et  appliquees  (Paris,  1894,  8vo). 


352 


JAVA 


populated,  and  favoured  with  a better  climate  and  a 
more  fertile  soil,  may  well  enrich  themselves  further 
by  the  cultivation  of  spices,  which  at  several  points  is 
now  being  undertaken  by  private  individuals  or  com- 
panies, and  the  still  more  profitable  cultivation  of  coffee. 
It  is  greatly  to  be  desired  that  the  natives  should  be 
awakened  from  their  indolence  by  the  public  or  private 
activity  of  the  European  planters. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


TIMOR  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES— BALI  AND  LOMBOK 

I.  The  physical  aspect  of  Timor  and  the  character  of  its  inhabi- 
tants.— II.  The  dependencies  of  Timor  : Flores,  Solor,  Alor, 
Sawu,  Sumba. — III.  Administrative  divisions  of  Timor  and 
its  dependencies. — IV.  Bali  : the  island  and  its  people. — V. 
Lombok  : the  island  and  its  people. — VI.  The  establishment 
of  the  Dutch  power  in  Bali  and  Lombok : the  administrative 
divisions,  and  the  future  of  the  Residency. 


I. 

Celebes,  the  Moluccas,  Dutch  New  Guinea  and  Borneo 
lie  on  the  arc  of  a vast  circle,  one  extremity  of  which, 
if  produced,  would  pass  through  the  centre  of  Sumatra. 
On  another  such  arc,  intersecting  the  former  and  of 
greater  curvature,  lie  Sumatra,  Java,  and  Dutch  New 
Guinea  ; and  on  that  portion  of  the  arc  between  Java 
and  New  Guinea  lie  Timor  and  its  dependencies,  the 
Flores  group,  Bali,  and  Lombok. 

The  Residency  of  Timor  and  its  dependencies  ( Timor 
en  Onderhoorigheden)  is  divided  into  three  districts  : — 

(a)  Timor  consists  of  the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island 
of  Timor,  Alor,  Sawu,  Roti,  and  Semaru,  and  is  divided 
into  six  sub-districts  : — 

i.  West  Timor,  capital  Kupang,  and  the  islands 
Semau,  Kera,  Kambing  Dilha,  Tabuin,  Burung,  and 
Tikus;  2.  Central  Timor;  3.  Belu;  4.  Alor  or  Ombai, 
with  the  Pandai  or  Pantar  Islands ; 5.  Sawu  (Savu) 
and  the  small  surrounding  Islands ; 6.  Roti  and  the 
adjacent  islands. 


24 


353 


354 


JAVA 


(6)  Sumba  (Tjendana — in  Sanscrit  chandana  = 

“santal”),  or  Santal-  or  Sendai-  or  Sandal-wood  Island 
( Sandelhoui-Eiland ). 

( c ) Flores,  with  the  Adunara,  Solor  and  Lomblem 
(Kawula)  Islands. 

With  the  exception  of  those  to  the  east,  these  islands 
are  commonly  known  as  the  Lesser  Sunda  Islands.1 

Timor,  or  rather  the  western  and  most  important 
portion  of  the  island,  has  long  been  a bone  of  contention 
between  Portugal  and  Holland.  Holland,  desirous  of 
feeling  herself  mistress  in  her  own  house,  after  having 
consented  to  the  greatest  sacrifices  that  she  might  obtain 
the  retirement  of  England  from  the  Dutch  Empire, 
made  on  several  occasions  the  most  tempting  offers  to 
the  Portuguese,  seeking  to  induce  them  to  relinquish 
the  portion  of  Timor  which  they  retained.  She  was 
finally  obliged  to  content  herself  with  the  treaty  of 
delimitation  signed  in  1899,  which  put  an  end  to  dis- 
putes, until  then  incessant,  as  to  the  frontier.2  Of  a 
total  area  of  11,230  square  miles,  supporting  some 
700,000  inhabitants,  Holland  obtained  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  territory — namely,  5,174  square  miles — and 
about  one-half  of  the  inhabitants,  with  its  dependencies, 
Dutch  Timor  has  an  area  of  about  18,000  square  miles, 
and  a population  of  308,600  souls,  of  whom  249  are 
Europeans,  and  1,568  Chinese. 

1 Sunda  is  a geographical  name,  and  does  not  signify  “ sound.” 

2 A region  concerning  which  all  ethnographical  and  sociological 
information  was  wanting,  the  Portuguese  portion  of  Timor  is  at  the 
present  moment  the  object  of  a searching  inquiry.  This  has  been 
undertaken  by  order  of  the  Governor  and  at  the  suggestion  of 
Senhor  Osorio  de  Castro,  President  of  the  Civil  Court  of  Dilli, 
who  has  undertaken  the  distribution  of  a series  of  questions, 
principally  of  a juridical  or  sociological  nature.  Senhor  de  Castro 
has  also  just  published  a most  curious  and  interesting  book,  Flores 
de  Coral  (Dilli,  1910,  8vo),  a collection  of  poems,  the  Indonesian 
terms  and  local  allusions  being  explained  in  long  notes  full  of 
novel  information  due  to  personal  observation.  Such  activity  is 
an  excellent  symptom,  and  we  may  hope  that  Portuguese  Timor 
will  soon  be  as  well  known  as  the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island. 


TIMOR  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  355 


The  island  runs  north-east  by  east  and  south-west 
by  west,  and  is  traversed  by  a range  of  mountains,  which 
is  wider  on  the  Portuguese  territory  than  in  the  western 
portion  of  the  island.  The  highest  summit  in  the  island 
is  8,300  feet  high  ; the  highest  in  the  Dutch  portion  is 
5,600  feet. 

The  streams  of  Timor  are  numerous  and  abundant ; 
but  during  the  period  of  the  eastern  monsoon — that  is, 
from  May  to  October — they  are  liable  to  dry  up  almost 
completely.  The  landscape,  until  then  laughing  and 
verdant,  takes  on  a shrivelled  and  yellowish  aspect  that 
is  positively  painful  to  see.  But  the  beneficent  western 
monsoon,  which  blows  from  November  to  April,  makes 
all  things  quicken  and  put  on  their  livery  of  green  as 
by  enchantment ; and  the  natives,  who  await  this 
renewal  of  vital  forces  in  condition  comparable  to  that 
of  their  forests,  greet  it  with  cries  of  delight  and  honour 
it  by  festivities. 

As  a result  of  the  desiccating,  almost  Australian  climate 
of  the  dry  monsoon,  the  climate  and  the  seasons  of 
Timor  are  infinitely  more  definite  in  their  changes  than 
those  of  Java,  Sumatra,  or  Borneo,  and  some  people 
are  scarcely  able  to  endure  the  dry  and  healthy  yet 
excessive  heat. 

The  fauna  and  flora  of  Timor  recall  Australia,  resem- 
bling those  of  India  hardly  at  all ; the  species  are  small, 
the  forms  grotesque.  Timor  possesses  no  elephant,  no 
tiger,  no  wild  cattle  (bos  sondiacus  or  banteng ),  and  only 
one  variety  of  monkey ; but  there  are  hosts  of  enormous 
bats,  some  dangerous  snakes,  and  crocodiles,  which  are 
revered  by  the  natives,  at  least  in  Kupang,  the  capital  of 
Dutch  Timor. 

The  Roti  archipelago,  capital  Baa,  presents  similar 
physical  characteristics.  Little  is  known  even  to-day  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Timor ; the  long  disputes  between 
Portugal  and  Holland  permitted  them,  between  the  two 
adversaries,  to  contrive  to  an  almost  complete  inde- 
pendence, which  their  warlike  nature  has  enabled  them 
in  a great  measure  to  retain  to  this  day.  As  far  as  we 


356 


JAVA 


can  judge  they  are  Malayo-Polynesians,  with  frequent 
admixtures  of  Papuan  blood,  so  that  in  type  and  culture 
they  approximate  to  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo.  They  are 
divided  into  a host  of  tribes,  which  on  account  of  certain 
ethnological  peculiarities,  and  their  own  statements,  have 
often  been  regarded  as  peoples  of  different  origin  ; but 
they  are  now  by  general  agreement  divided  into  the 
Timorese  ( Atoni  Timor),  who  inhabit  the  south-west  of 
the  island ; the  Belonese  ( Ema  Belo)  of  the  centre  and 
east  of  Timor,  and  the  Kupangs  ( Atuli  Kupang),  who 
are  settled  in  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Kupang  and  in  the 
island  Semau  (Samao,  Samau,  Samauw).  The  largest 
group,  that  of  the  Belonese,  claim  to  have  come  from  the 
Moluccas.  Many  are  to-day  Christians,  at  least  in  name, 
and  a certain  number  are  Mahomedans ; but  in  the 
interior  they  remain  animists  worshipping  the  Sun  and 
the  Moon  his  wife,  and  paying  homage  to  certain  trees 
and  rocks,  and  to  the  souls  of  the  dead,  whom  they 
greatly  fear.  A little  grove  or  thicket  near  the  village 
conceals  the  protecting  god,  with  whom  only  the 
sorcerer-priest  dares  to  hold  speech. 

Extremely  superstitious,  the  Timorese  spend  a great 
deal  in  sacrifices  to  the  divinities,  these  sacrifices  includ- 
ing living  animals  ; and  they  fetter  their  whole  lives  with 
a host  of  prohibitive  measures  analogous  to  the  Poly- 
nesian tapu  or  taboo. 

Nearly  all  the  Timorese  tattoo  themselves  and  file  the 
teeth.  Although  independent  to  a fault,  they  recognise 
almost  everywhere  the  authority  of  a hereditary  chief  of 
divine  origin,  who  is  regarded  as  immortal : he  does  not 
die,  but  sleeps.  His  corpse  is  often  exposed  on  the 
branches  of  a tree  in  an  open  coffin  ; or  the  wives  of  the 
deceased  chief  will  keep  his  body,  during  the  period  of 
putrefaction,  in  a kneeling  position  ; and  only  when  the 
flesh  has  decayed  and  the  remains  are  reduced  to  a 
mummified  condition  are  they  buried,  facing  the  Sun, 
the  chief's  ‘'father.”  With  the  chief  are  buried  a 
portion  of  his  goods  and  his  clothing  : formerly  the 
mourners  would  cut  the  throats  of  several  of  his  slaves 


TIMOR  AND  ITS  DEPENDENCIES  357 


above  his  tomb,  so  that  he  should  not  go  unattended  in 
the  land  of  dreams  ; but  to-day  he  has  to  content  him- 
self with  a dog  as  companion  and  guide.  After  the 
dead  man  has  been  covered  with  honours  and  presents, 
there  is  no  precaution  which  the  mourners  will  not  take 
to  avoid  awakening  the  soul  of  the  sleeper,  and  to  prevent 
his  returning  to  his  old  home,  there  to  wander  about  and 
torment  the  living  who  inhabit  it. 

During  the  long  disputes  between  the  Dutch  and  the 
Portuguese  on  the  subject  of  Timor  and  the  surrounding 
archipelagoes,  the  natives  were  constantly  encouraged  by 
the  one  party  to  resist  the  other,  with  the  result  that 
European  influence  and  European  rule  have  but  a feeble 
foothold  on  Timor.  The  whole  island  is  shared  between 
a host  of  petty  rajahs,  turbulent  and  insular,  hating 
strangers ; and  the  Christians  are  by  no  means  the  least 
hostile.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  “ black  Christians,” 
the  descendants  of  Portuguese  half-breeds,  whose  pride 
in  their  noble  origin  and  their  Western  creed  has  often 
the  result  of  making  them  as  intractable  as  they  are 
treacherous.  Yet  while  Portugal,  should  she  persist,  out 
of  a comprehensible  pride  in  her  brilliant  past,  in  remain- 
ing in  Timor,  has  neither  the  necessary  resources  nor  any 
genuine  desire  to  put  her  colony  in  order,  the  Dutch 
have  been  at  work  for  some  years  on  their  portion  of 
the  island ; creating  wealth  by  reclaiming  the  soil, 
ensuring  the  obedience  of  her  vassals,  and  suppressing 
the  slave-trade  in  all  directions.  Although  the  Dutch 
portion  of  Timor  has  a less  fertile  soil  than  the  northern 
portion,  the  Dutch  are  slowly  transforming  their  portion 
of  the  island  into  a magnificent  plantation  of  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  sugar-cane. 


II. 

The  Flores,  Solor  and  Alor  groups,  all  of  volcanic 
origin  and  full  of  smoking  or  extinct  volcanoes,  are 
strung  out  between  Timor  and  Sumba,  with  the  Sea  of 
Flores  on  the  one  hand  and  the  Sea  of  Sumba  on  the 


358 


JAVA 


other.  These  islands  also  were  the  object  of  disputes 
between  Portugal  and  Holland  until  1859,  when  they 
finally  fell  to  Holland.  Their  populations,  analogous  to 
those  of  Timor  and  Sumba,  but  crossed  on  the  coasts 
with  Malay  and  Bugis  blood,  are  partly  Christian,  partly 
Mahomedan,  partly  animist.  Closed  to  all  Europeans 
while  the  Company  was  still  in  power,  lest  passing  vessels 
should  take  up  cargoes  of  the  wild  cinnamon  which 
abounds  there,  and  which  might  compete  with  the  culti- 
vated product  of  the  Company,  and  then,  like  so  many 
shuttlecocks,  tossed  between  Portugal  and  Holland — a 
fate  which  for  some  time  delivered  them  from  either — 
these  groups  of  islands  have  formed  a section  of  the  East 
Indies  which  is  one  of  the  least  civilised  and  least  known 
of  all. 

Sumbawa,  to  the  south  of  Flores  and  west  of  Timor, 
and  Sumba,  or  Sandal-wood  Island,  are  scarcely  better 
known.  In  both  these  islands,  however,  and  in  the 
physical  aspect  of  their  inhabitants,  there  are  visible 
traces  of  a Hindu  occupation,  although  the  natives  have 
long  since  fallen  back  into  animism  ; but  an  animism 
free  from  the  barbarous  practices  to  be  found  elsewhere. 

Timor,  first  colonised  by  irvaders  from  Ternate, 
remained  subject  to  the  latter  until  the  coming  of  the 
Portuguese  in  1520.  The  Dutch  arrived  in  1613. 

III. 

To-day  the  Dutch  portion  of  Timor  and  its  depen- 
dencies forms  a Residency  whose  capital  is  Kupang  (3,773 
inhabitants,  including  106  Europeans,  468  Chinese,  and 
178  Arabs).  Built  facing  on  a fine  anchorage,  it  would 
be  an  extremely  agreeable  town  were  it  not  for  the 
torrid  and  unhealthy  climate.  It  contains  a well-built 
fort  and  a considerable  garrison,  for  the  rajahs  of  Kupang, 
secretly  excited  by  the  Portuguese,  formerly  gave  the 
Dutch  considerable  trouble,  so  that  at  one  time  the 
Government  had  no  less  than  14,000  troops  in  the  island. 

These  rajahs  profess  to  be  related  to  the  crocodiles 


BALI  AND  LOMBOK 


359 


which  infest  the  shores  of  the  islands  ; and  it  is  said  that 
they  formerly  used  to  strengthen  their  family  ties  by  a 
curious  ceremony.  Whenever  one  of  them  ascended 
the  throne  his  subjects  used  to  throw  themselves  into  the 
water  to  do  homage  to  the  king’s  relatives,  and  the  first 
crocodile  to  emerge,  and  thus  to  admit  the  relationship, 
received  as  a reward  a wife,  in  the  shape  of  a richly 
dressed  virgin,  whom  he  promptly  devoured. 

To-day  Kupang  is  occupied  chiefly  in  exporting  coffee, 
sandal-wood,  horses,  fruits,  pearl-shells,  sharks’  fins, 
trepang,  swallows’  nests,  and  tortoise-shell. 

Baa  (Baa,  Namuda,  or  Namudale),  containing  1,083 
inhabitants,  on  the  island  of  Roti,  is  the  capital  of  the 
district  formed  by  that  island.  It  carries  on  a small 
export  trade  in  fish,  wood,  and  wax. 

Waingapu  (11,069  inhabitants),  the  capital  of  a district 
including  Sumba  and  Sawu,  which  formerly  prospered 
largely  by  the  slave-trade  which  the  Dutch  have  sup- 
pressed, exports  little  to-day  but  excellent  horses  and 
sandal-wood,  although  the  precious  sandal-tree  has  dis- 
appeared from  the  coasts,  and  is  now  found  only  in  the 
interior  of  the  island  of  Sumba. 

Larantuka,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Flores,  Solor, 
and  Alor  (4,663  inhabitants),  is  in  continual  touch  with 
Celebes,  whence  it  imports  all  its  manufactured  goods  ; 
sending  in  return  fish,  tortoise-shell,  and  cinnamon,  in 
place  of  the  numerous  slaves  which  it  used  to  furnish, 
and  by  so  doing  largely  depopulated  itself  and  the 
surrounding  islands. 

The  future  of  the  Residency  of  Timor  depends  entirely 
upon  its  effective  pacification  and  submission,  which  will 
allow  the  Dutch  to  reclaim  the  soil.  The  soil  of  Timor 
in  particular  is  noted  for  its  fertility  even  in  the  Indies. 


IV. 

With  the  Residency  of  Bali  and  Lombok  we  return  to 
the  heart  of  the  Indo-Javanese  civilisation,  and  it  is  not 
only  by  reason  of  the  similitude  of  its  geological  structure 


360 


JAVA 


and  its  orientation  that  Bali,  in  particular,  has  earned 
the  name  of  Little  Java. 

The  two  islands  are  almost  equal  in  size,  and  their 
joint  area  amounts  to  4,050  square  miles,  or  slightly 
more  according  to  some.  Their  joint  population 
amounts  to  525,565,  including  119  Europeans,  1,807 
Chinese,  and  143  Arabs.  The  last  census  betrays  a 
regrettable  depopulation,  similar  to  that  which  some 
twelve  years  ago  affected  all  the  East  Indies  excepting 
Java.  In  1900,  in  fact,  the  inhabitants  of  Bali  and 
Lombok  numbered  1,039, 300. 1 

Bali,  separated  from  Java  by  the  narrow  Strait  of  Bali, 
is,  like  the  larger  island,  essentially  volcanic  in  character. 
Its  highest  peaks  are  Tabanan  (7,500  feet),  the  base  of 
which  is  pitted  with  little  lakes  ; Gunung  Agung,  or  the 
Peak  of  Bali  (10,400  feet,  and  Batur  (7,350  feet). 

The  coast,  full  of  inlets,  but  bristling  with  reefs  and 
shoals,  is  unsafe  and  even  inaccessible  for  a portion 
of  the  year.  Temukus  is  the  only  port  which  can  be 
entered  and  left  at  any  state  of  the  tide  and  at  any  time 
of  the  year. 

The  streams,  plentiful  though  they  are,  have  no  time, 
within  the  limits  of  Bali,  to  attain  any  useful  amplitude, 
especially  as  a great  part  of  the  surface  of  Bali  is  occu- 
pied by  the  mountains.  The  climate  is  that  of  eastern 
Java  : hot  but  healthy,  excepting  on  the  south  coast, 
where  the  swamps  of  the  coast  are  reeking  with  fevers. 

On  this  account,  and  because  of  the  absolute  contempt 
of  hygiene  manifested  by  the  inhabitants,  Bali  has  for 
years  been  the  prey  of  periodical  epidemics  of  cholera 
and  smallpox,  which  are  at  last  diminishing,  owing  to 
the  measures  taken  by  the  Dutch  Government. 

1 Concerning  Bali  and  Lombok  see  W.  O.  J.  Nieuwenkamp,  Bali  cn 
Lombok,  Uilvoerige  geillustreerde  reisherinneringen  en  studies  omtrent 
land  en  volk,  kunst  en  kunstnijverheid  (Edam,  1906, 4to). — R.  Friederich, 
“An  Account  of  the  Island  of  Bali,”  in  “ Miscellaneous  Papers  re- 
lating to  Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Archipelago,”  Second  series, 
vol.  ii.,  pp.  69-200  (London,  1887,  2 vols.,  8vo). — J.  H.  van  Balen, 
Lombok,  Landen  Volk  (Helder,  1894,  8vo). — J.  J.  Ten  Have,  Het 
eiland  Lombok  en  zijne  bewoners  (The  Hague,  1894,  8vo). 


‘WAYANG”  ACTORS,  SINGARADJA,  BALI. 


BALI  AND  LOMBOK 


361 


The  flora  and  fauna  of  Bali  are  closely  related  to  those 
of  Java,  and,  like  the  latter,  are  half  Indian,  half  Australian 
in  character. 

The  island,  thanks  to  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and  the 
frequent  rains,  has  the  aspect  of  a gigantic  bouquet  of 
verdure.  There  is,  however,  a lack  or  a scarcity  of  the 
larger  forest  trees ; and  although  the  teak-tree  itself  is 
present,  Bali  is  obliged  to  import  timber  for  constructive 
purposes.  In  compensation,  the  coco-palm,  the  origin 
of  the  preparation  known  as  copra,  and  the  lontar-palm 
are  abundant. 

The  fauna  is  not  so  rich  as  that  of  Java  : the  rhinoceros 
and  banteng  no  longer  exist,  but  numbers  of  tigers  roam 
the  west  and  centre  of  the  island ; and  the  forests  conceal 
many  wild  cats,  and  the  musk-bearing  chevrotain.  The 
domestic  animals — buffalo,  wild  cattle,  horses,  goats, 
pigs,  &c. — are  the  same  as  in  Java. 

The  chief  interest  of  Bali  is  archaeological,  and  resides 
in  the  character  of  the  inhabitants  and  their  obstinate 
attachment  to  Hinduism  after  the  lapse  of  centuries. 

All  efforts  to  convert  them  to  Christianity  or  to  Islam 
have  hitherto  failed,  except  among  the  very  lowest  classes, 
who  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  inferior  races. 

Bali,  it  seems,  must  have  been  visited  at  a very  early 
period  by  the  Hindus,  who  settled  there  and  remained 
under  the  suzerainty  of  their  compatriots  at  Madjapahit. 
Even  to-day  the  majority  of  the  Balinese  proudly  entitle 
themselves  Wong  Madjapahit  (men  of  Madjapahit),  in 
order  to  distinguish  themselves  from  the  Bali-aga  or 
indigenous  Balinese,  who  are  dispersed  over  almost  the 
whole  of  the  island,  and  have  not  been  subjected  to 
Hindu  influence. 

After  the  fall  of  Madjapahit  the  element  which  had 
been  converted  to  Hinduism,  reinforced  by  the  refugees 
from  the  Hindu  empire,  became  still  more  arrogant  and 
insular.  To-day  the  population  consists  of  the  Wong 
Madjapahit,  descendants  of  the  aborigines  and  the  Indo- 
Javanese  colonists  who  profess  Hinduism  ; the  Bali-aga, 
aborigines  of  a purer  blood  who  have  remained  pagans, 


362 


JAVA 


and  on  the  coast  the  Balislam,  natives  crossed  with 
Javanese  and  Madurese  and  converted  to  Islam. 

Physically,  the  Wong  Madjapahit  are  the  finest  and 
most  handsome  of  these  peoples.  At  once  more  robust 
and  more  slenderly  built  than  the  Javanese,  whom  they 
very  closely  resemble,  they  are  also  lighter  in  colour,  and 
their  eyes  are  keener  ; they  have  long  arms  and  very 
narrow  feet. 

From  the  social  point  of  view  we  find  that  Hinduism 
has  endowed  them  with  the  oppressive  caste  system  ; a 
system  which,  in  all  that  concerns  people  of  Brahministic 
descent,  is  pitiless  in  its  determination  to  maintain  the 
purity  of  caste.  But  lately,  if  a Brahmin’s  daughter 
took  a lover  of  inferior  caste,  she  was  put  to  death,  and 
the  lover,  being  sewn  into  a sack,  was  cast  into  the  sea. 
The  Dutch,  wherever  their  authority  reaches,  have 
caused  the  substitution  of  banishment  for  this  cruel 
punishment.  They  also  prohibited  sati  or  suttee;  but 
when  a prince  or  a Brahmin  dies  the  family  of  his  wife 
or  wives  move  heaven  and  earth  to  evade  the  law,  so  that 
the  wretched  widows  may  enjoy  the  glory  of  burning 
themselves  to  death  upon  their  husband’s  corpse. 

Despite  these  practices,  and  a proud,  bellicose  temper, 
only  too  often  excited  to  madness  by  the  abuse  of  hemp 
(Cannabis  indica ),  the  Balinese  are  tolerant : they  allow 
the  lower  classes  to  adopt  Christianity  or  Islam,  and  the 
fact  that  they  permit  Brahmins  to  marry  women  of 
inferior  caste  without  depriving  the  children  of  such  a 
marriage  of  the  caste  of  the  father,  is  leading  to  a 
gradual  levelling  of  social  differences. 

Externally  the  Balinese  betray  their  Hinduism  by 
abundant  prayers  and  fasts  of  purification  ; by  their 
respect  for  cow-dung  and  the  five  products  of  the  cow, 
and  their  horror  of  beef  and  buffalo-meat.  The  only 
meat  they  eat  is  pork.  Although  they  are  Brahminists, 
and  some  even  Buddhists,  and  although  they  erect 
effigies  of  the  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  in  their 
temples,  it  would  be  an  exaggeration  to  speak  of  the 
Balinese  as  pure  Hindus.  Their  religion  is  grafted  on 


BALI  AND  LOMBOK 


363 


the  animistic  superstitions  of  the  Malayo-Polynesian 
race,  which  are  constantly  showing  through  the  newer 
cult,  and  which  really  form,  under  the  Hindu  ritual, 
their  clearest  and  most  definite  beliefs. 

Of  the  Hindu  trinity,  Shiva,  with  his  sakti  (wife  or 
energy)  Durga  has  become  the  supreme  divinity  of  Bali  : 
they  have  effaced  Vishnu,  Brahma,  and  their  wives. 
Shiva,  in  the  shape  of  Mahadeva,  has  his  seat  upon 
Gunung  Agung,  the  highest  summit  of  the  island. 
Durga,  in  the  capacity  of  a goddess  whom  the  Hindus 
call  Uma,  “the  Gracious,”  dwells  in  the  Lake  of  Batur, 
at  the  foot  of  Mount  Batur ; whence  her  alternative 
name,  Devi  Danu,  the  Lady  of  the  Lake  ; but  as  Kali 
and  the  goddess  of  death  the  Balinese  represent  her  as 
a monstrous  and  hideous  female  ; but  she  is  chiefly 
honoured  as  the  virgin  Devi  Seri — the  goddess  of  agri- 
culture— the  Cri  of  the  Hindus  : the  Ceres  or  Demeter 
° 7 

of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Agricultural  rites,  moreover, 
hold  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  Balinese  cult. 
The  representations  of  Devi  Seri  in  effigies  of  Chinese 
coins  or  kepengs  sewn  together  are  extremely  popular. 
The  old  Polynesian  gods  or  rabut  sedana,  to  whom  the 
Hindu  gods  are  in  reality  everywhere  subordinated,  are 
also  represented  in  the  same  way.  All  the  temples  have 
their  special  rabut  sedana,  not  counting  those  reserved 
for  Kali.  At  the  back  of  the  sanctuary  a little  house 
surmounted  by  from  three  to  a dozen  superimposed 
roofs,  which  is  known  as  the  Meru  Mountain,  shelters  a 
couple  of  gods  in  kepengs  ; and  the  statues  of  the  Hindu 
divinities,  which  are  placed  in  the  body  of  the  temple, 
serve  as  guardians  or  rakshasas. 

With  the  exception  of  Batara  Baya  (the  Hindu  Vayu) 
in  whose  honour  some  temples  have  been  erected  along 
the  coast,  the  secondary  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon  are 
no  longer  the  object  of  a special  cult  in  Bali.  Their 
statues  are  often  encountered,  but  the  people  who  give 
to  all  the  general  title  of  togog  no  longer  distinguish  their 
several  characters.  They  hold  by  the  rabut  sedana 
guarded  by  Shiva,  and  the  temples  of  the  dead  dedicated 


364 


JAVA 


to  Kali  and  Devi  Seri  the  goddesses  of  the  harvest,  which 
are  all  that  remain  to  them  of  their  double  past.1 

V. 

Lombok,  the  country  of  the  Sasaks,  to  the  east  of  Bali, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Straits  of  Lombok,  is 
• less  known  than  Bali,  although  it  has  been  under  the 
political  domination  of  the  latter  since  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Lombok,  volcanic  and  mountainous  like  its  neighbour, 
possesses  in  Rendjani  or  the  Peak  of  Lombok  (12,290 
feet)  one  of  the  most  lofty  and  magnificent  summits  in 
all  the  Indies.  The  streams  are  as  small  as  those  of  Bali, 
but  so  numerous  that  the  eastern  plains,  where  rice  and 
coffee  are  the  principal  crops,  are  marvellously  fertile. 
The  climate  recalls  that  of  Bali  ; the  fauna  and  flora  are 
more  Australian  than  Indian. 

The  inhabitants  of  Lombok,  the  Sasaks,  are  all 
Mahomedans.  They  are  not  particularly  fervent,  nor 
have  they  many  mosques ; their  religion  consists 
principally  in  their  being  circumcised  and  refusing  to  eat 
pork.  They  eat  no  meat  but  beef : unlike  their  neighbours 
the  Balinese,  to  whom  the  eating  of  beef  would  be 
sacrilege.  The  thousands  of  Balinese  who  have  estab- 
lished their  supremacy  in  Lombok  and  from  the  conquer- 
ing caste  treat  their  Sasak  subjects  with  the  most  arrogant 
contempt. 

The  Balinese  Rajah  of  Lombok  reigns  over  a small 
portion  of  Bali  also  : namely,  over  the  Government  of 
Karangasem.  He  delegates  his  powers  to  a viceroy 
chosen  from  his  own  family. 

The  possessor  of  a capital  little  army,  and  an  intelligent 
but  extremely  despotic  ruler,  the  old  sovereign  of 
Lombok,  who  died  only  two  years  ago,  was  a very 

1 See  C.  M.  Pleyte,  Pantheon  hindou-balinois  in  the  Exposition 
universelle  Internationale  de  1900  a Paris.  Guide  a travers  la  section 
des  Indes  Neerlandaises.  Groupe  xvii.  ( Colonisation ),  pp.  223-4.  (The 
Hague,  1900, 8vo.) 


BALI  AND  LOMBOK 


365 


distinguished  Asiatic  sovereign.  Thanks  to  a system 
of  severe  repression  order  reigned  throughout  all  his 
possessions  ; theft  and  adultery  were  punished  by  death, 
and  the  use  of  opium  and  games  of  chance  by  the 
bastinado.  The  Dutch  Government  alone  was  able  to 
qualify  his  autocracy,  without  jeopardising  such  results 
of  his  policy  as  were  of  value. 

VI. 

Bali  and  Lombok  were  discovered  in  1597,  by  the 
brothers  Houtman ; but  the  extremely  warlike  nature  of 
the  inhabitants  made  their  conquest  a matter  of  great 
difficulty.  Only  in  1743  did  the  Susuhunan  of  Surakarta 
cede  his  rights  in  Bali  to  the  Dutch  ; but  the  island  did 
not  recognise  the  sovereignty  of  Holland  until  nearly  a 
century  later — in  1841  ; and  dangerous  rebellion  neces- 
sitated lengthy  military  expeditions  in  the  years  1846, 
1848,  and  1849.  Even  as  lately  as  1890-1894  the  Dutch 
had  to  content  themselves  with  the  direct  administration 
of  the  two  Balinese  provinces  nearest  to  Java  : namely, 
that  of  Djembrana  and  that  of  Buleleng  or  Singaradja. 
Over  the  other  provinces — Bangli,  Mengwi,  Badung, 
Giaujar,  Klunkung,  Kerangasem — the  Dutch  had  only 
a moral  and  little  more  than  nominal  influence.  These 
provinces  were  governed  by  an  alliance  of  rajahs  who 
were  absolute  monarchs  in  their  own  dominions, 
and  ready  at  a moment’s  notice  to  begin  hostilities  in 
the  shape  of  an  irregular  campaign,  a war  of  ambuscades 
and  surprises,  exceedingly  dangerous  to  European 
troops  on  unknown  ground,  especially  in  a country 
infested  with  fever  and  covered  by  dense  and  treacherous 
vegetation. 

The  position  of  the  Dutch  in  Lombok  was  no  better. 
The  arrogant  Balinese,  who  forbade  their  subject  Sasaks 
the  right  to  bestride  a horse  upon  their  native  island, 
looked  with  the  blackest  disfavour  upon  the  irruption  of 
powerful  foreigners.  The  Dutch  advanced  prudently  and 
adroitly,  profiting  by  the  complaints  of  the  oppressed 


366 


JAVA 


Sasaks  or  the  lower-caste  Balinese,  and  at  need  enforcing 
their  representations  by  long  and  bloody  campaigns. 

In  1894  the  military  power  of  the  princes  of  Lombok 
was  finally  broken  by  an  expedition  which  cost  General 
Michiels  his  life ; the  rajahs  submitted  and  are  now 
apparently  loyal.  But  the  princes  of  Bali  were  only 
defeated,  and  in  1908  another  expedition  had  to  be 
despatched  to  the  latter  island  ; and  the  wives  of  the 
rajahs,  drunk  with  hemp  or  opium,  have  followed  their 
lords  into  the  field,  and  have  flung  themselves  upon  the 
bayonets  of  the  Dutch  soldiers  rather  than  surrender  to 
the  victor.  One  cannot  be  certain  that  such  scenes  will 
never  be  repeated ; for  this  stubborn  race,  despite  the 
circle  which  is  closing  around  it,  appears  to  prefer  death 
in  freedom  than  life  in  subjection. 

From  the  administrative  point  of  view  the  Residency 
of  Bali  and  Lombok  forms  three  districts  : the  first  has 
for  capital  the  town  of  Singaradja  (8,727  inhabitants, 
including  44  Europeans  and  914  Chinese).  This  is  the 
seat  of  the  Dutch  Resident ; a huge  overgrown  village, 
with  many  native  kampongs  and  fine  public  buildings. 
About  two  miles  from  Singaradja  is  Buleleng  or  Pabean 
Buleleng,  a busy  port  with  a population  of  Chinese, 
Arabs,  Bugis,  Madurese,  and  a few  Armenians.  Negara, 
the  capital  of  the  second  district,  has  a population  of 
6,650  only.  Mataram,  the  capital  of  Lombok,  formerly 
a very  flourishing  town,  with  Malay,  Balinese,  Bugis, 
Chinese,  and  Sasak  kampongs,  has  to-day  only  three 
hundred  inhabitants  left.  The  inhabitants  have  left  the 
towns,  and  are  living  on  the  territory  of  the  rajahs, 
although  the  Dutch  administration  is  everywhere  doing 
its  utmost  to  improve  their  lot. 

The  economic  future  of  Bali  and  Lombok  is  necessarily 
bound  up  with  that  of  Java.  The  best  that  can  happen 
to  either  island  is  that  it  should  one  day  be  absorbed 
into  the  economic  system  of  the  larger  island.  The 
Balinese,  who  are  poor  sailors  on  account  of  the  nature 
of  their  coasts,  but  excellent  labourers,  carvers,  smiths, 
armourers,  &c.,  have,  like  the  people  of  Lombok,  every- 


BALI  AND  LOMBOK 


367 


thing  to  hope  from  the  methodical  cultivation  of  their 
unusually  fertile  soil ; when,  instead  of  confining  them- 
selves to  shipping  copra  and  a few  of  their  excellent 
horses,  they  would  soon  be  able  to  export  coffee,  sugar, 
and  tobacco  of  their  own  growing,  and  so  open  up  a 
considerable  trade  with  the  outer  world. 


CONCLUSION 


What  will  finally  be  the  fate  of  Dutch  colonisation 
in  the  islands  of  the  East  Indies  ? It  seems  that  the 
past  will  answer  for  the  future.  The  Dutch  Indies,  like 
all  Asiatic  colonies  to-day,  are  tending  towards  autonomy  ; 
but  they  are,  for  the  moment,  incapable  of  realising  it 
unaided  ; nor  could  they  do  so  with  the  help  of  any  other 
nation  of  the  Far  East.  They  can  attain  independence 
only  in  the  remote  future,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Dutch  flag. 

But  even  though  the  moral  and  intellectual  qualities  of 
the  people  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  of  the  Javanese 
and  Malays  in  particular,  may  justify  their  hope  of  a 
freer  future,  it  is  very  difficult  to  imagine  that  a common 
destiny  could  be  shared  by  races  so  different,  and  ranking 
so  unequally  on  the  scale  of  civilisation,  without  either 
cohesion  or  unity.  With  all  these  peoples  the  political 
sense  is  very  rudimentary.  The  Malays  and  Javanese 
were  able  to  rise  from  the  anarchical  conception  of  semi- 
barbarous  tribes  always  at  war  to  that  of  a host  of 
autocracies,  brutal  and  conquering  powers ; but  not 
to  the  idea  of  a nationality,  or  even  of  a federation 
of  states  united  by  ethnological  or  linguistic  affinities. 
This  mental  disability,  which  delivered  them  up  to  the 
Europeans,  renders  them  still  incapable  of  gaining 
freedom  except  at  the  cost  of  falling  back  into  anarchy. 

Thus  the  European  theory  that  “ the  natives  should  be 
left  to  arrange  matters  between  themselves " is  simply 
puerile.  The  only  way  in  which  people  “arrange” 
matters  in  any  part  of  the  world — but  especially  in  the  Far 
East — is,  as  history  shows,  by  crushing  the  weak.  The 

368 


CONCLUSION 


369 


natives  of  Indo-China  “arranged  matters”  by  subjecting 
the  Shans  and  the  Cambodians  to  the  brutal  tyranny  of 
the  Annamites  : the  people  of  the  Indian  Archipelago 
“arranged  matters”  by  means  of  Malay  and  Achinese 
invasions,  chronic  piracy,  head-hunting,  ritual  murders, 
incessant  warfare  and  depopulation  and  mental  de- 
generation on  every  side.  To  pretend  that  a European 
domination,  even  with  its  regrettable  blunders  and 
failures  of  justice,  is  not  for  the  good  of  such  peoples, 
is  to  deny  the  past,  to  deny  the  petition  of  the  victims  in 
favour  of  the  complaint  of  the  privileged  despoiled  of 
their  privileges. 

Could  any  great  Asiatic  nation  do  more  for  the  Indies 
than  Holland  has  done  ? The  idea  is  inadmissible. 

Since  the  Russo-Japanese  War  certain  Gallic  enthusiasts 
have  been  extolling  in  the  Japanese  the  very  qualities 
that  they  most  deplore  in  European  peoples  : a warlike 
spirit,  an  ardent  nationalism,  a heroic  and  indefatigable 
ambition  : and  have  suggested  that  Japan  will  rapidly 
become  possessed  of  Indo  - China,  the  Philippines, 
the  East  Indies,  and  even  China.  Even  did  the 
childlike  candour  of  the  French  induce  our  Japanese 
allies,  by  such  indirect  invitations,  to  install  themselves 
in  French  Indo-China,  it  is  possible  that  China,  America, 
and  Germany  would  scarcely  encourage  their  ambitions, 
and  at  need  might  quiet  them.  It  would  be  as  Utopian — 
forgetting  the  lessons  of  history — to  give  all  the  “ yellow  ” 
races  of  Asia  and  the  “ brown  ” races  of  the  Archipelago  to 
Japan  in  the  name  of  vague  racial  affinities  as  it  would  be 
to  suggest  that  Spain  should  be  given  to  the  Hungarians, 
because  both  Spaniards  and  Hungarians  are  Europeans. 

What  the  Asiatics  admire  in  Japan  is  that  she  has  been 
able  to  assume  the  civilisation  of  the  West.  But  it  is 
permissible  to  believe  that  Europeans  still  retain  the 
complete  comprehension  of  their  own  civilisation,  and  are 
likely  to  initiate  other  nations  with  greater  humanity.  The 
brutal  denationalisation  of  Corea  proves  as  much  ; and 
it  is  certain  that  no  Asiatic  people  is  anxious  to  furnish  a 
second  example. 


25 


370 


JAVA 


The  European  balance  of  power  makes  it  eminently 
desirable  that  the  East  Indies  should  remain  the  property 
of  Holland  rather  than  of  England,  Germany,  the  United 
States,  or  France. 

Again,  what  do  they  not  mean  to  the  Dutch  ? The 
Dutch  have  for  three  centuries  lived  - in  the  Indies, 
developed  with  the  Indies ; to-day  they  know  them 
through  and  through,  and  love  them  as  their  most 
precious  jewel,  the  very  source  of  their  wealth  and 
greatness. 

It  is  true  that  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, and  even  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  Dutch  administration  was  far  from  irreproachable  ; 
in  which  it  resembles  the  administration  of  all  other 
colonial  powers. 

We  must  recognise,  too,  that  Holland  confined  herself 
to  diverting  to  her  own  profit  the  system  of  abuses  by 
which  the  local  tyrants  had  lived  before  her  arrival.  In 
doing  so  she  did  what  no  moral  and  civilised  nation 
should  do  ; but  others  have  done  worse.  But  as  com- 
pensation for  these  undeniable  errors,  the  Indies  owe 
her  not  less  undeniable  benefits,  even  though  the  origin 
of  those  benefits  was  not  always  disinterested.  The 
admirable  economic  development  of  the  whole  of  Java, 
and  of  a great  part  of  the  whole  Archipelago ; the  security 
of  a strong  and  systematic  organisation ; a general 
humanisation  of  manners ; the  more  and  more  effectual 
prevention  of  famines  ; the  population  of  Java  increased 
to  ten  times  its  original  dimensions,  and  an  increase  of 
population  throughout  the  islands : these  are  solid  benefits. 

We  cannot  accuse  a country  of  unmixed  cupidity,  of 
a purely  selfish  exploitation,  when  the  Government  of 
that  country  spends  more  than  £1,000,000  annually  on 
the  pensions  of  notables  and  the  salaries  of  native 
officials,  and  more  than  £ 280,000  annually  on  the 
education  of  those  very  natives — far  more  for  the  benefit 
of  agriculture  than  for  the  upkeep  of  repressive  military 
force.  How  many  colonial  powers  can  boast  of  having 
done  more,  or  even  of  having  done  as  much  ? 


CONCLUSION 


371 


We  see  little  Holland  holding  in  subjection  peoples 
who  are  beginning  to  be  aware  of  their  numerical 
strength.  To  gain  their  hearts,  she  has  only  to  suppress 
the  absurd  disdain  which  certain  colonists  feel  for  the 
native  ; those  imbecile  insults  and  annoyances  to  which 
they  would  not  dare  to  subject  the  meanest  of  their 
compatriots,  and  which  the  “ browns  ” do  not  like  any 
better  than  the  “whites”  because  they  have  for  centuries 
been  compelled  by  force  to  endure  them. 

The  native  aristocracy,  whose  power  over  the  people 
is  already  so  great,  are  in  all  loyalty  aspiring  towards  the 
knowledge  and  culture  of  the  West.  It  would  be  ex- 
ceedingly dangerous  to  wound  them  by  a sullen  hostility 
the  moment  they  commence  to  produce  individuals 
capable  of  equalling  Europeans  and  capable  of  assimila- 
tion with  them.  Those  who,  in  the  Indies  and  elsewhere, 
can  see  in  the  brilliant  disciple  of  to-day  nothing  but  the 
possible  rival  of  to-morrow,  and  in  their  dangerous 
jealousy  repulse  him  and  refuse  their  loyal  collaboration, 
are  most  surely  preparing  the  way  for  the  eventual 
emancipation  which  they  dread.  If  the  Indies  have  need 
of  Holland,  Holland  has  an  even  greater  need  of  her 
colonies,  the  source  of  her  commercial  stability  and  her 
political  power. 

Her  character  and  a series  of  happy  accidents  have 
allowed  her  to  play  a part  disproportionate  to  her  size. 
The  place  which  she  won  in  Europe  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  her  colonies  restored  to  her  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  possession  of  her  splendid 
Indian  empire  she  feels  on  a level  with  more  powerful 
States ; without  them  she  would  understand  the  bitter- 
ness of  that  saying  of  Leopold  II.  of  Belgium:  “It  is 
such  an  infirmity  for  a country  to  be  small!”  This 
is  why  the  Low  Countries,  whose  courage  and  patriotism 
have  long  been  famous,  would  shed  the  blood  of  their 
last  soldier  rather  than  abandon  the  Indies  ; and  for  this 
reason  they  feel  each  day  more  strongly  the  necessity 
of  securing  them  by  a civilisation  of  a wholly  humane 
and  civilising  type. 


INDEX 


Abrew,  Antonio  de,  12 
Acheen,  288,  289,  295 
Achinese,  the,  266,  274-7 
Achinese  War,  153,  288 
Adat,  108-9,  I4I>  2°8 
Adjih  Saka,  8 

Administration,  of  Java,  189-203  ; 

see  Resident,  Regent 
Administrative  Divisions,  57-100 
Advisers  for  Native  Affairs,  197-8 
Agriculture,  112,  113  ; coffee,  183  ; 
history  of,  205  ; rice,  213-16 ; 
coffee,  219-24;  sugar,  224-8; 
tobacco,  228-31  ; tea,  231-3  ; 
quinine,  233-5  i indigo,  236-7  ; 
pepper,  238  ; opium,  238  ; agri- 
culture in  Sumatra,  303.  See 
Exploitation,  Land  Tenure,  Plan- 
tations, and  chapters  dealing  with 
the  lesser  islands 
Agricultural  College,  the,  212 
Aji  Saka,  9 

Albuquerque,  first  Portuguese 
Viceroy,  12 
Alexander  VI.,  12 
Alfours,  the,  34,  327,  329,  342 
Almeida,  12 
Aloun-aloun,  108 
Alor  Islands,  357 
Amboin,  12,  349-50 
Amburawa,  sinister  history  of, 
68-9,  209 

Amok,  condition  of,  36-7 
Amurang,  366 
Anamba  Islands,  281 
Angkor  Wat,  72 
Animism,  9-10 

Anjer,  destroyed  by  tidal  wave, 
261 

Arabs,  civilising  influence  of,  28, 
154  ; complaints  against,  155-56 
Archaeological  Society  of  Djok- 
jakarta, 73 


Army,  Dutch  Colonial,  167-9 
Asoka,  4 

Bali,  359-67  ; Hinduism  in, 
362-3  ; history,  365 
Bamboo,  217 
Bandjermasin,  320-1 
Bandung,  64 
Banjawangi,  98 
Banjumas,  69 

Banka,  281-2  ; tin  mines  of,  300-1, 
345 

Banks,  246-7 
Bataks,  34,  270-2 
Batavia,  58-61 
Batik  industry,  12 1-3 
Bencoolen,  287,  289,  291 
Besuki,  87,  97 

Billiton,  281-2  ; tin  mines,  301 
Birds,  1 16 
Blitar,  92 

Borneo,  area  of,  26,  307  ; history, 
308-9  ; geology,  309  ; rivers,  310  ; 
climate,  flora,  fauna,  311-12  ; 
history,  317—18 ; mines,  321 
Boro-Budur,  71-3 
Brahminism,  8,  138 
Brantas,  Kali  (River),  91 
Bridges,  249 

Brooke,  Rajah  Sir  James,  31 
Brunei,  31 
Buddhism,  8,  138 
Budget,  the,  208 
Bugis,  the,  328-9 

Buitenzorg,  Botanical  Institute  and 
Government  station,  62,  251 

Cabots,  the,  explorers,  14 
Cabral,  12 
Calicut,  12 

Catholicism  in  Java,  138 
Chancellor,  founds  the  Russian 
Company,  14 


372 


INDEX 


373 


Cheribon  (Tjirebon),  63 
Chinese,  the,  158  ; commercial 
habits,  159, 161-2  ; harshness  of, 
163  ; as  colonists,  164  ; laws 
relating  to,  165-6 
Chinese  blood,  admixture  of,  in 
Malay  race,  134,  154 
Christianity  in  Java,  140 
Climate  of  Java,  52-3 
Coco-palm  and  products,  216 
Coffee,  183,  219-24,  303 
College,  Royal  Preparatory,  200 
Colonists,  the  Dutch,  168-88 ; 
houses  of,  175-6 ; furniture, 
177-8  ; food  and  clothing,  178- 
Si  ; servants,  182 ; hospitality 
of,  183  ; social  impermanence 
of,  185 ; preservation  of  the  race, 
186 

Columbus,  11 

Company  of  Distant  Countries, 
29 

Company,  Dutch  East  India,  q.v. 
Compulsory  crops,  207-10 
Condiments,  118 
Coral  reefs,  meaning  of,  2 
Corvee,  the,  207,  209-10 
Costume,  native,  123-5 
Council  of  the  Indies,  196,  200 
Crops  : rice,  213-16  ; maize,  coco- 
palm,  276 ; fibre,  217  ; areca, 
217;  bamboo,  217  ; coffee,  219- 
24  ; sugar,  224-8 ; tobacco, 
228-31 ; tea,  231-3  ; quinine, 
233-5  > *n  Sumatra,  303 
Crossing  of  races,  186-8 

Daendals,  Marshal,  17-18 ; his 
exploitation  policy,  145 ; 
government  of,  171,  191  ; road 
built  by,  206  ; 248,  284 
Delft,  Municipal  Institute  of, 
201 

Dekker,  Edouard  Douwes,  16 
Deli,  286-7 
Demak,  history  of,  67 
Departments,  Government,  196 
Diamonds,  322 

Dipo  Negoro,  rebel  leader,  21 
Djambi,  286,  293 
Dj i ember,  97 
Djokjokarta,  82-3 
Domestic  animals,  119-20 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  14 


Dutch,  arrival  of,  in  the  Indies,  29; 
seize  Portuguese  colonies,  30 ; 
policy  of,  138  ; resume  posses- 
sion of  Java,  192 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  138  ; 
bankruptcy  of,  169 ; policy  of, 
169-171  ; replaced  by  Crown, 
190,  285 

Dutch,  language,  reserved  for 
rulers,  42-4 
Dyaks,  34,  312-17,321 

East  Indies,  origin  of,  2 
Education,  native,  21,  144-53  > 
demand  for,  150-1  ; budget  of, 
153 

Engineering  works,  248-9 
Engineers,  practical,  186 
Europeans  in  Java,  167-88 ; in 
the  army,  167 ; other  than 
Dutch,  172 

Exploitation  of  the  soil,  early 
methods,  204-7 ; forced  cultures, 
207 

Exports,  253 

Fauna  of  Java,  35-6,  115-20 
Fisheries  and  fish,  1 16-18 
Flores  Islands,  347 
Foreigners,  census  of,  154,  167  ; 
regulations  to  be  observed  by, 
i72-3 

Foreigners,  Oriental,  155-66 
Games,  127 

Gamelan,  native  orchestra,  127-8 
Garut,  64-5 
Gayos,  the,  273-4 
Generalities,  25-44 
Geological  structure  of  Archi- 
pelago, 32 
Giri,  90-1 
Gold,  297-300,  322 
Gorontalo,  336 

Governor-General,  the,  195  ; 

powers  of,  194 ; salary,  199 
Grisei,  90-1 
Gunung  Guntur,  49 

Hemp  ( Cannabis  indica ),  abuse  of, 

36-7 

Hindus,  invasion  of,  4,  5,  8,  34  ; 

civilising  influence  of,  28,  137 
Hinduism  in  Bali,  362-3 


374 


INDEX 


Historical  sketch,  1-24 
Holland,  area  and  population,  25  ; 

Asiatic  possessions,  25-6 
Houtman,  Cornelius,  discovers 
route  to  India,  15,  28 
Huns,  the,  4 
Hunting,  113 

Imports,  253 
Indonesians,  33 

Industries,  native,  112 ; copra,  216 ; 
bamboo  huts,  217 ; sugar,  224- 
8 ; tobacco,  228-31  ; batik-  and 
Are^s-making,  244  ; silk,  245 
Islam,  28 ; introduction  of,  137, 
141 

Japanese,  the,  134  ; position  in  the 
Far  East,  155,  166,  369 
Java,  history,  1-24 ; area,  26 ; 
population,  27  ; geography,  45- 
53  ; see  Crops,  Fisheries,  Fauna 
Javanese,  the,  in  early  times,  4,  34, 
101-35  J their  villages  and  agri- 
cultural pursuits,  105  ; houses, 
106;  customs,  108;  family,  109; 
marriage,  110-11 ; crops,  112  ; 
industries,  1 12 ; as  workers,  1 13 ; 
their  fisheries,  113-18;  indus- 
tries, 120-5  > dress,  123-5  > village 
life,  125-6 ; amusements,  127  ; 
character  and  manners,  13 1-4; 
culture,  135 ; mental  abilities, 
136-153  ; thirst  for  ideas,  147-51 
Javanese  language,  the,  38-40,  137 

Kalangs,  customs  of  the,  102 
Kawi,  ancient  Javanese,  137 
Kediri,  87,  91 
Kedu,  70-1 

Koningsplein,  Batavia,  61 
Korintji,  268 

Krakatau,  eruption  of,  261 
Krawang,  63 
Kudus,  68 
Kupang,  358 

Labour,  compulsory,  207-10 ; free, 
210 

Lampong,  Residency  of,  289,  292 
Lampongs,  the,  37-42,  267,  284 
Land,  old  forms  of  tenure,  re- 
formed by  Raffles,  19,  208,  212, 
247-8 


Lebongs,  the,  267 

Lerne,  de,  13 

Leyden,  Dr.,  18 

Leyden,  University  of,  200-1 

Lombok,  359-67 

Lura  (loerah),  headman,  195 

Macassar,  331 
Macassars,  the,  326,  330 
Madiun,  Residency  of,  86,  98,  101 
Madjapahit,  empire  of,  9,  49 
Madura,  Residency  of,  45,  72 
Madurese,  the,  103-4 
Magelang,  47 

Mahomedan  festivals,  141-2.  See 
Islam 
Malang,  94 

Malaria,  of  Tjilatjap,  46 
Malay  Archipelago,  formation  of, 
1-2  ; population  26 
Malay  language,  38-42  ; low  Malay, 
40 

Malays,  probable  origin  of,  2-7  ; 
extraneous  influences,  4 ; early 
legends,  4-33  ; elements  of  ad- 
mixture, 34  ; appearance  and 
qualities,  35-6,  101-3 ; of  Su- 
matra, 266  ; of  Menangkabau, 
268-9,  27° 

Mantri,  the,  195 
Marching-cry  of  nomads,  5 
Mataram,  ancient  empire  of,  74 
Mecca,  157 
Meester  Cornelis,  59 
Menado,  334-5 

Menangkabau,  Malays  of,  34,  268-9 
Merapi,  69,  71 
Merauke,  356 
Merbabu,  69,  71 

Mines  and  minerals,  242-3  ; in 
Sumatra,  297  ; in  Banka,  300-1  ; 
in  Borneo,  321 
Minto,  Lord,  18 

Miscegenation,  advantages  and 
drawbacks  of,  186-8 
Modjokerto,  90 
Moluccas,  the,  339,  345-9 
Money,  252 
Mongols,  the,  4 

Multatuli  (E.  Douwes  Dekker),  16 

Nassau,  House  of,  31 
Native  languages,  37-42 
“ Native  Question,1’  the,  203 


INDEX 


375 


Native  races,  33-7,  and  under 
headings  of  various  islands 
Negritos,  33 

New  Guinea,  Residency  of,  351 
Niassais,  the,  277-8 
Nomadic  origin  of  Malays,  legen- 
dary and  probable,  6 

Officials,  Colonial,  189-203  ; 
examinations,  201 ; appointment, 
202 

Opium,  abuse  of,  36-7 
Orang  Benua,  280 
Orang-Ulu,  268 
Orang  Luba,  268 
Orientals,  see  Foreigners 
Outer  Possessions,  27,  257 

Pacific  Continent,  the  sub- 
merged, 2 
Pacific  Islands,  2 
Padang,  287,  289,  290 
Padris,  the,  287 
Pajajaram,  empire  of,  9 
Palembang,  285,  289,  292  ; petro- 
leum in,  302 
Pamekasan,  98 
Pandofo,  the,  106 
Pangeran  Adipati  Mangku  Negoro, 
75.  79.  81 

Pangeran  Adipati  Paku  Alam,  75, 

79.  81 

Papua,  see  New  Guinea 
Papuans,  33 

Pasangralian,  Government  inn,  73 
Pasuruan,  87,  92 
Pekalongan,  65-6 
Perkeniers,  of  Banka,  the,  345 
Petroleum,  243,  302 
Philip  II.,  annexes  Portugal,  14, 
29 

Philologists,  official,  197-8 
Plantations  and  plantation  life, 
173  ; land  tenure,  174  ; houses, 
175-6 ; see  Colonists 
Polynesia,  2 
Polos,  the,  2 
Pontianak,  318-19 
Portugal,  discovery  of  Indies  by, 
28 

Portuguese,  discoveries  and  arrival 
of,  11-13 

Posts  and  telegraphs,  251 
Prambanan,  83 


Preangers,  Residency  of  the,  64 
Principalities,  the,  see  Vorslen- 
landen 

Pringilan,  the,  106 
Probolinggo,  93 

Products,  natural  and  other,  204- 

39 

Property,  native  system  of,  212 
Protection,  253 
Purworedjo,  71 
Puwokarta,  63 

Quinine,  233-5 

Races,  Native,  33-7 
Raffles,  Sir  Stamford,  3,  17 ; Im- 
perial and  local  policy  of,  18  ; 
reforms,  19,  190 ; policy  of, 
191,  291 

Railways,  249-50,  305-6 
Raksha,  Hindu  demons,  4,  97 
Rasaksa,  Hindu  demons,  also  name 
given  to  pre-Brahmin  inhabi- 
tants of  Java,  4,  6 
Redjangs,  the,  208 
Regents,  native,  193 
Rembang,  85 

Residencies  of  Java,  57-100  ; of 
Sumatra,  289 
Residents,  the,  194,  197 
Revenue,  19 
Rice,  213-16 

Riouw  Lingga,  Archipelago  of, 
278-80,  296 
Rivers  of  Java,  50-1 
Roads,  249 
Rubber,  300 

Rulers,  Native,  190  ; pensions  and 
salaries  of,  193  ; titles,  193 
Russo-Japanese  War,  effect  of, 
7.  154-5.  364 

Sa  Francisco  de,  13 
Salatiga,  68 
Salejer,  333 
Salt,  244 

Samarang,  port  of,  66  ; suburbs,  67 
Sampang,  99 
Sandal-wood  Island,  358 
Sarong,  the,  123 
Sasaks,  the,  364 
Schools,  149-153 

Selo  mangling  (native  Hindu 
shrines),  91 


376 


INDEX 


Serdang,  294-5 
Shipping,  251-^5 
Shiva,  worship  of,  96 
Sindow,  71 
Sirih  (betel),  107 
Sitabondo,  97-8 
Slamettan,  or  banquet,  13 1,  141 
Slavery,  suppressed,  171 
Snakes,  46 
Solo  River,  86-7 
Solor  Islands,  357 
State  philologists,  197 
Sugar,  224-8 
Sukabumi,  64-5 
Sultan,  the,  75-^6,  82-3 
Sumatra,  257  ; climate,  259  ; vol- 
canoes, 259-262  ; rivers,  262  ; 
climate,  265  ; flora  and  fauna, 
265-6 ; inhabitants,  265-278  ; 
languages,  282  ; history,  285-8  ; 
Residencies  of,  289 ; minerals, 
297  ; crops,  303-4  ; railways,  305 
Sumatra,  East  Coast,  292,  294 
Sumatra,  West  Coast,  306 
Sumba,  358 
Sumbawa,  358 
Sumbing,  71 

Sundanese,  the,  34-5,  101-3 
Surabaja,  87-90 
Surakarta,  78,  82 
Susuhunan,  the,  74-7,  80-1 

Tandjong  Priok,  port  of  Batavia, 
59-60 

Tandjong  Priok,  capital  of  Riouw 
Lingga  archipelago,  296 
Tapanuli,  289,  291 
Tea,  231-3 
Teak,  240-2 


Tenggris,  the,  96 
Ternate,  347 
Tigers,  56 
Timber,  240-2,  300 
Timor,  31,  353 ; Holland’s  en- 
deavour to  purchase,  388-9 
Tjandi  Loro,  64 
Tjandi  Mendut,  83 
Tjandi  Sewu,  84 
Tjilatjap,  69  ; malaria  of,  70 
Tobacco,  228-31 
Tondano,  335 
Toradjas,  the,  329 
Tosari,  sanatorium,  95 
Trade,  253-4 
Trading  companies,  15 
Tumpang,  97 

Van  den  Bosch,  system  of  cul- 
tivation, 207-8 
Van  den  Lith,  209 
Van  Hoevell,  209 
Van  Putte,  209 
Vegetation,  Javanese,  53-4 
Venetians,  28 
Veth,  219 

Volcanoes,  32,  48-50 
Vorsienlanden,  57  ; railway,  66 ; 
history,  74-6  ; produce,  77-85 

War  with  England,  170 ; with 
France,  171 
Waingapu,  359 
Wayang,  127-130 
Wedono,  195 
Weltcvreden,  59-60 
Willoughby,  attempts  North- 
Eastern  passage,  14 
Wong  Madjapahit,  361 


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THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SERIES 


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By  C.  REGINALD  ENOCK,  F.R.G.S.  With  an  Introduction  by  MARTIN 
HUME,  a Map  and  64  full-page  Illustrations. 

" Mr.  Enock  unites  to  a terse  and  vivid  literary  style  the  commercial  instinct  and  trained 
observation  of  a shrewd  man  of  affairs.” — Aberdeen  Free  Press. 

" Mr.  Enock  transmutes  the  hard  material  of  ancient  chronicles  into  gleaming  romance  ; 
he  describes  scenery  with  a poet's  skill.  Full  of  charm  he  makes  his  pages,  alluring  as  a 
fairy  tale,  an  epic  stirring  and  virile.” — Manchester  City  News. 

Vol.  IV.— ARGENTINA. 

By  W.  A.  HIRST.  With  an  Introduction  by  MARTIN  HUME,  a Map 
and  64  Illustrations. 

“ The  best  and  most  comprehensive  of  recent  works  on  the  greatest  and  most  progressive  of 
the  Republics  of  South  America." — Manchester  Guardian. 

“A  very  interesting  and  trustworthy  survey  of  the  present  conditions  and  prospects  of  the 
country." — Times. 

Vol.  V.— BRAZIL. 

By  PIERRE  DENIS.  With  a Map  and  36  Illustrations. 

“ It  is  a mine  of  information,  arranged  with  all  the  lucidity  of  a Frenchman  ; and  in  one  case, 
in  the  long  chapter  devoted  to  the  valorisation  of  coffee,  the  treatment  deserves  to  be  caUed 
masterly.  ’ ’ — Glo  be. 

Vol.  VI.— URUGUAY. 

By  W.  H.  KOEBEL.  With  a Map  and  55  Illustrations. 

- "An  expert’s  diagnosis  of  the  present  condition  of  Uruguay.  ...  A document  of  the  deepest 
interest." — Evening  Standard- 

Other  volumes  in  preparation. 


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